Mexican Archæology/Chapter 13

by Thomas Athol Joyce

 

CHAPTER XIII—THE MAYA: ARCHITECTURAL REMAINS

THE architectural remains exemplifying the early Maya culture are scattered over a wide region, roughly between 87 and 94 degrees of west longitude, and between 14 and 22 degrees of north latitude. The western portion of the area consists of the high plateau, intersected with river-valleys, and distinguished by much relatively open country. Over this ground various tribal migrations have passed, but the ruins do not show a culture of so high a type as those of the country further east. Between the plateau and Yucatan, buildings of the highest type are found, in low-lying alluvial country, densely forested, in which stone is, practically speaking, only procurable where the hills approach the rivers. In Yucatan, material for architectural construction was ready to hand in the soft limestone of which the peninsula is formed, and the action of the underground streams in causing the land-surface to collapse in places, had broken up the limestone into slabs of all sizes, almost as if to suit the convenience of the builder. But the Yucatec buildings belong on the whole to a later date than those of the central region, and though technically they may equal the latter, yet signs of artistic decadence make their appearance in over-luxuriant conventionalization, and indications of foreign influence are seen at certain sites, notably at Chichen Itza.

In a book intended mainly as an introduction to the study of Mayan archæology a full description of the many ruined sites is out of the question, and this chapter will be limited to a consideration of the main points of Mayan architecture, with illustrations taken from the chief groups of remains. Those who desire fuller details may be referred to the magnificent plates of Maudslay, and the extremely valuable and illuminating descriptions of Palenque, Chichen Itza, Uxmal and Mitla (besides Monte Alban and Teotihuacan) of Holmes. Spinden's monograph on Maya art should also be studied, as well as Seler's book on the ruins at and around Chacula.

The sites to which especial reference will be made are the following: In the Usumacinta valley, Palenque, Piedras Negras and Menché; in the level country near the British Honduras border, Tikal, Naranjo and Seibal; on either side of the Guatemala-Honduras frontier, Quirigua and Copan; and in Yucatan Chichen Itza, Uxmal, Sayil and Tulum. Some allusion will also be made to remains in British Honduras, notably at Santa Rita, and to the district of Huehuetenango in western Guatemala.

One of the principal features of Mayan architecture, as also Mexican, is the fact that all buildings of importance are constructed on raised foundations, varying in form from low platform mounds, often of irregular shape, to lofty pyramidal structures (Fig. 73). The two are not infrequently found combined, and a platform-mound sometimes supports a group of pyramids on which temples were erected. The sides of the platform-mound are sometimes given a steep slope, or are sometimes built vertical or nearly so, the latter form being characteristic rather of Yucatan. The pyramids are usually of the stepped variety, and the risers of the steps are frequently sloped; they are provided with a main stairway on one face, and sometimes with supplemental stairways on the other faces, as in the case of the so-called "Castillo" at Chichen Itza, which can be seen to the left of Pl. XXVIII; p. 348. In this building, and

Fig. 73.—Examples of Maya terraces and pyramids (buildings omitted).

 

a-e.	Most common forms.
f.	"El Castillo" at Chichen Itza.
g.	"Governor's Palace," Uxmal.
h.	"Temple of the Magician," Uxmal.
i.	Ball-court temple, Chichen Itza.
(After Holmes)

also at Copan, the stairway is furnished with ornamental balustrades, those at Chichen being carved in the form of two monstrous snakes of which the heads are extended on the ground at the foot of the pyramid. Practically all pyramid-mounds served as the support for buildings, though a certain number, without stairways, have been found which are simply burial-mounds. An exception occurs at Tikal (according to Tozzer), and perhaps in other places, where high pyramids with stairways appear to have had no crowning structures, and were possibly used as sites for offerings made in the open air. The material of which such structures are built is earth and rubble, and they have usually been faced with stone dressed with more or less accuracy, any imperfections being concealed with stucco. In some cases, notably at Copan, excavation has revealed the presence of a cement layer at some depth beneath the surface. This is probably an indication that the pyramid at some period has been enlarged, and it may be said that similar evidence of the practice of adding to existing structures is found elsewhere in the Maya area. 'The buildings which crown the foundation-mounds vary in type from simple, single-chambered edifices to elaborate complexes such as are found at Palenque and Menché, but as a matter of fact the construction is essentially the same throughout. The form of the typical Maya building was to a great extent conditioned by the fact that the primitive architect was ignorant of the principle of the true arch. It is possible that some buildings may have been furnished with flat roofs by means of wooden beams, but if so the beams have decayed and the buildings have fallen in; such structures as have survived were built as follows (Figs. 74 and 77; pp. 323 and 329): The walls, built very thick, were carried vertically up to the desired height, and then the mason commenced to build inwards at a very wide angle, allowing successive courses to overlap, until those on opposite walls approached near enough for the space to be bridged by single slabs. Meanwhile the outer faces of the walls were carried up vertically or at a slope, and the exterior

Fig.74.—Transverse section of a typical Yucatec building.

 

a.		Lower wall with doorway.
b.		Doorway.
c.		Wooden lintels.
d.		Communication doorway.
e.		Inner face of arch.
f.		Capstones of arch.
g.		Lower string-course.
h.		Decorated entablature.
i.		Upper string-course.
j.		Flying facade with ornament (sometimes added).
k.		Cornice of last.
l.		Roof-crest with ornament (sometimes substituted for j).
(After Holmes)

of the roof was finished off flat or with a very slight gable respectively. The distance between the spring of the vault and the apex was considerable, and this gave to the exterior face of Maya buildings a very deep entablature (Fig. 74, h) which afforded a magnificent space for ornament. The entablature is separated from the wall proper, which is usually unornamented, by a projecting cornice or "string-course" (Fig. 74, g), the design of which varies according to locality, and in some of the Chichen buildings the lower portion of the wall is battered. The form of vault limited the width of the chamber to ten feet or so, but placed no restrictions upon its length, and at Palenque we find long corridor-like chambers, with frequent doorways, built upon this principle. In Yucatan the entablature is nearly always perpendicular (Fig. 74, h), at Tikal and Menché it slopes slightly backward, and at Palenque the slope is considerable (Fig. 77; p. 329); but these are inessential details, and it may be said that the typical Maya building is a solid, box-like structure containing a narrow chamber vaulted as described above. Even the more complex edifices are nothing more than an agglomeration of such chambers, and the type holds good for the whole of the Maya region. The nature of the Maya vault embodies the principle, in the words of Spinden, of "the downward thrust of a load on over-stepping stones," and this thrust was often increased by the addition of a superstructure, usually known as a "roof-comb" (Figs. 74, l, and 75, e). This addition reached its greatest dimensions at Tikal, where it usually resembles a very high-pitched stepped mound, sometimes solid, sometimes enclosing one or more very narrow blind chambers (Fig. 76, 9, a, and 11). The roof-comb was present also at Menché and probably at Naranjo and Piedras Negras (though not at Copan or Quirigua), but attains its greatest artistic development at Palenque (see Pl. XXVII; p 342), where it is a light

Fig. 75.—Examples of Maya buildings.

 

a.	Single-chambered building.
b.	Multiple-chambered building.
c.	The round tower at Chichen Itza (restored).
d.	Building at Chichen Itza with sloping entablature of Palenque type.
e.	Palenque type of temple.
f.	The square tower at Palenque (restored).
(After Holmes]

and airy structure, pierced with openwork, and elaborately ornamented with stucco reliefs. In Yucatan the roof-comb, where found, differs from those of the central Maya area in consisting, not of two inclined walls, but of a single vertical wall (Fig. 74, l), and it is often replaced by an elaborate false front, (Fig. 74, j), rising above the vertical entablature, the ornament of which it carries up to a greater height. But though the roof-comb may by its weight have assisted in giving stability to the Maya building, it was by no means essential, the thick walls and solid roof were constructed of stones freely mixed with mortar, and the result was a structure which was practically a monolith; in fact, the Maya built caves, the exterior surfaces of which they faced with a veneer of dressed slabs, often, especially in Yucatan, carved and arranged to form elaborate mosaic decoration. Their method of building was extremely wasteful of space, and Holmes says of the so-called "Governor's Palace" at Uxmal, figured on Pl. XXX; p. 358, "We find by a rough computation that the structure occupies some 325,000 cubic feet of space, upwards of 200,000 of which is solid masonry, while only about 110,000 feet is chamber-space. If the substructure be taken into account, the mass of masonry is to the chamber-space approximately as 40 to 1." In the case of the buildings at Tikal, the proportion of chamber-space is considerably less (see Fig. 76, 11). In some cases at any rate the connection of the superimposed building with the foundation-mound on which it rested is emphasized by the fact that the walls of the former continue downwards into the heart of the latter (according to Holmes), possibly even to the ground-level. The doorways by which these buildings were entered are for the most part simple. In the more massive structures, such as Tikal and Copan, a single doorway seems to have been the rule; but at the sites which display greater

Fig. 76.—Ground plans and elevations of Maya temples.

 

1.	Single chambered building (Fig. 75, a).	5.	Temple "El Castillo" at Chichen.	9.	Temple at Tikal.
2.	⁠"⁠wall broken by doorways	6.	Temple of Palenque type. (Fig. 77.)	10.	Temple at Copan.
3.	Two-chambered building.	7.	Temple at Menché.	11.	Temple at Tikal with single chamber and hollow roof-crest.
4.	⁠"⁠with circular columns,	8.	Temple at Piedras Negras.

architectural advancement, such as Palenque, the front is often broken by a series of doorways so close together that the wall becomes little more than a series of square pillars (Fig. 75, d). Round columns are found only in Yucatan, especially at Chichen Itza, associated with those buildings which are attributed to a later date (Pl. XXIX). It is interesting to note that, while in the Old World the column is based for the most part on vegetal forms, in this country the animal world has been laid under contribution. The Chichen columns are carved to represent feathered serpents, with their heads upon the ground and their tails elevated in the air, exactly similar to the columns which have been found at Tulan in Mexico. Stone was employed for lintels, especially at Menché,where they are elaborately carved, but wood was used almost more frequently. The carved lintels of Tikal (see Fig. 48; p.225), of the durable zapote wood, are among the finest examples of Maya art, and have survived owing to the solidity of the buildings and their single doorways. At Palenque and in Yucatan the wooden lintels, being less well protected, have vanished, and their decay has often contributed to the downfall of the structure; at the same time the fact that many of the buildings have not suffered to any extent from the removal of the lintels emphasizes the monolithic character of the Maya building. Windows are practically non-existent, though openings in the walls between chambers are common, especially at Palenque (Fig. 77; p. 329). As stated above, the typical Maya building is a simple rectangular chamber, as shown in the plan, Fig. 76, 1. But it was capable of considerable elaboration, and the succeeding plans show some of the variations produced by the addition of subsidiary chambers and the breaking of the wall by means of doorways. The highest degree of complexity is seen at Palenque, where the main building contains a specially-built cell, furnished with a separate roof, to enshrine the mural tablet which probably served as an object of worship (Fig. 77).

The methods of the Maya builder, and in particular

Fig. 77.—Section through the Temple of the Cross, Palenque (lintels restored): see Fig. 76, 6.

 

a.	Stairway.	h.	Original position of mural tablet.
b.	Pillar (restored).	i.	Masonry arch-brace.
c.	Vestibule.	j.	Capstones of doorway arch.
d.	Doorway to inner side chamber.	k.	Partition-wall.
e.	Large doorway to inner main chamber.	l.	Steps for ascending roof-crest through middle floor.
f.	Doorway to shrine.	m.	Middle floor and roof of roof-crest.
g.	Shrine.
(After Holmes)

his ignorance of the true arch, rendered the construction of an edifice of more than one storey (apart from the roof-comb) a matter of considerable difficulty. Nevertheless buildings of two, and even three tiers of chambers are known, though the plan on which they were erected was extremely wasteful of material and space. Usually the higher or highest tier was supported on a solid construction, around which the chambers of the lower tier or tiers were grouped (Fig. 78). The whole edifice thus resembled in the main a huge stepped mound, with rooms built in each of the steps. Sometimes the outer chambers of a superior tier would overlap those of an inferior to some extent, but in such cases the floor

Fig. 78.—Plans and section of building at Santa Rosa Xlabpak.

 

A.	Plan, ground floor.	C.	Plan, second floor.
B.	⁠"⁠first floor.	D.	Section.
(After Spinden)

of an upper chamber was almost always supported on the dividing wall of two of the lower. The cave-like structure of Maya buildings is particularly evident in such architectural monstrosities. However, many of the sites do not include buildings of more than one floor (apart from the roof-comb). In some cases, as at Tikal, the upper tiers must have been reached by ladders, as no stairway leads to them, and it is interesting to note in this connection that more than one stela at Piedras Negras represents a god seated in a niche to which a ladder gives access from below (Pl. XX; p. 224). The finest example of a three-tiered building is found at Santa Rosa Xlabpak (Fig. 78), but in this case a broad stairway leads from the ground to the highest tier. Two remarkable buildings of more than one storey call for mention, if only as exceptions to the general rule. These are the square tower at Palenque, and the circular edifice known as the "Caracol" at Chichen Itza. The first (Fig. 75, f) had originally at least three floors, as well as two intermediate blind storeys, the chambers of which are grouped around a square core of masonry in which is built a staircase. The second (Fig. 75, e), which has two storeys, is constructed round a circular core, in which is a very small spiral stairway. The essentials of construction are the same, the chief differences lying in the facts, firstly, that whereas the chambers of the Caracol are all vaulted, those of the Palenque tower are in some cases furnished with flat ceilings of beams, and secondly, that while the upper storey of the Caracol is considerably less in diameter than the lower, the square tower retains the same diameter throughout. Architecturally the latter is considerably superior to the former, but the shape of the Caracol is interesting since it is the only circular construction now existing in the Maya country, though Landa states that a circular temple to Kukulkan was built at Mayapan, and further remarks that this shape of building was particularly related to this god. It will be remembered that circular temples, according to tradition, were erected to Quetzalcoatl, his counterpart, in Mexico.

The Maya architects did not attempt to handle large masses of stone in the construction of their buildings; no blocks comparable in size with the great lintels of Mitla enter into the composition of Maya temples and in the art of masonry the Maya were far behind the megalithic builders of the Peruvian and Bolivian highlands. The only attempt at stone building, where regularly squared blocks are laid in rows with due attention to the breaking of courses and the bonding of corners, is found at Copan, and that too in only a very small proportion of the ruins of that site. Elsewhere no regard is paid to these two important architectural points, and this fact has contributed in some degree to the downfall of many of the buildings. However, the fault is the less serious owing to the extreme solidity of the stone-and-mortar hearting. As stated above, Maya buildings were faced with a veneer of blocks dressed on the exterior surface; these were usually cut away to some extent behind, so that the mortar in which they were set extended in tongues nearly to the outer face of the wall, just as at Mitla; but in many cases the tenon-like backs of the surface-blocks were not sufficiently prominent, and in consequence they have fallen away from the core of stone and mortar, leaving the latter exposed. This method of facing enabled the builders to ornament their temples with the most elaborate mosaic designs, which are seen in their greatest complexity in Yucatan (Pls. XXIX, 2,and XXX; pp. 350 and 358). The designs here fall roughly into two classes, geometrical patterns, which often appear to be based upon textile art, and grotesque representations of the human face (e.g. Fig. 86, g; p. 356). The latter is particularly characteristic of the region, and represents probably the face of the god B, the counterpart of the Mexican Tlaloc, whose nose is frequently prolonged into a regular trunk (see PI. XXIX, 2). Some of the geometrical patterns are produced by the regular repetition of a small element, and these naturally were easier of construction since they are composed of similarly carved blocks; but many of the designs are formed of blocks each of which has been carved to fit the particular place which it occupies in the whole scheme of ornament, and this fact not only bears witness to a vast amount of patient labour, but implies also that the architect was

1—2

 

MAYA

1. Building at Sayil, Yucatan
2. Temple at Tikal, Guatemala

working in accordance with a definite plan prepared beforehand. In Chichen Itza grotesque masks are found in some of the buildings, composed of details which do not fit into the scheme, a fact which proves that the Maya mason was not above utilizing material gleaned from the ruins of former buildings, besides affording evidence that such structures are of later date. It has already been mentioned that circular columns are peculiar to Yucatan, and it may be added that a variety of ornament derived from them was also applied to the outer surface of buildings, in the form of series of pilasters, such as are found at Sayil, and Labna and elsewhere (Pl. XXV, 1; p. 332).

Mortar, obtained by burning the local limestone, besides being used in great quantities for the hearting of buildings, was also employed for flooring, and, as stucco, for making up defects in wall-surfaces and designs. Besides this it was extensively used for moulded decoration at certain sites, notably Palenque. Here the limestone is of a very hard variety, and difficult to work with such tools as the Maya possessed; as a result, the art of modelling in relief attained a great development, and some of the finest works of Central American art are those produced by the stucco-workers of Palenque. Where the relief is low, the stucco has been employed alone, but where bold effects were desired, as on the roof-combs, a regular skeleton of the design has first been prepared, of limestone blocks, over which the stucco has been applied and moulded to the requisite form.

Colour formed an important aid to Maya ornament, and was frequently applied to stone carvings. It seems to us rather barbarous to cover fine stone reliefs with a coat of coloured stucco, but the Maya artist had no scruples on this score, and reliefs have been found at Palenque to which several layers of the above have been applied at different times. Many of the stelæ, especially at Piedras Negras, still show evident traces of colour, and it must be remembered that when the details were picked out in different tints the designs appeared far less complicated than in monochrome. But apart from the colouring of reliefs, fresco designs in a variety of hues were commonly applied to the interior walls of buildings, and their graceful and flowing lines prove that the Maya was no mean artist with the brush. This form of ornament has been observed at Menché, where a design of scrolls, leaves, flowers and figures of men and animals is painted on the walls of one of the chambers, in two reds, two blues, yellow and dark brown. At Chichen Itza the art of fresco was highly developed; not only were the columns, doorposts and interior reliefs painted in colours, but many chambers were elaborately ornamented with coloured designs. According to Miss Breton, who has made a careful study of these frescoes, two different hands may be traced in the method of execution. One artist employed outlines but sparingly, and carried out the greater part of his work in dry colour, sometimes superimposing one tint on another to obtain the desired effect. The other drew all his figures in outline and added the principal colour masses while the plaster was still damp, putting in the details subsequently in dry colour. The hues include two reds, two blues, four greens, yellow, white, black and purple. The practice of ornamenting wall-surfaces with painted designs extends into British Honduras, where a building with very important frescoes has been discovered under peculiar circumstances. This is at Santa Rita, and the building in question was found buried in a large mound, which had been heaped over it, apparently with intention. The frescoes are painted on the walls below the cornice, and had been shielded from the earth by protecting walls built about an inch from them to meet the cornice. The colours include red, pink, blue, yellow, grey and black, and the design represents a number of human or divine figures accompanied by date-glyphs in the Maya style. Among the figures the Maya gods B and K of the manuscripts may be easily recognized, while one with bird and serpent attributes may well be Kukulkan (Fig. 79). At the same time one figure is shown with black paint around the eye, exactly as worn by the Aztec Mixcoatl and other stellar gods, while other details peculiar to Mexican art appear, such as a frieze of

Fig. 79.—Detail of fresco at Santa Rita, British Honduras.
(After Gann)

star-eyes, very similar to that of Mitla (compare Fig. 80), and sun-discs in Mexican style. Many of the figures are represented with bound hands, and in one place a sacrificial scene is depicted. It is possible that the fresco commemorates some victory, but the occasion, as well as the reason of the burial of the building, remains a mystery.

Apart from the buildings reserved for ceremonial or residential purposes, tlaxtli-courts are found in the Huehuetenango district, at Rabinal, and again in northern Yucatan, though not in the central area. These courts have the floor and walls carefully plastered, and the stone rings which project, one from each wall, are usually well carved. The court at Chichen is the largest known, and is associated with a special temple with serpent columns in the style of Tulan (Pls. XXVIII and XXIX, I; pp. 348 and 350). The western courts resemble very closely those of the Zapotec area. The question of the introduction of the game into the Maya area has already been discussed on p. 302.

Living as they did in a climate with an abundant rainfall, Fig. 80.—Details from frescoes.

	A. Santa Rita, British Honduras.
	B. Mitla, Oaxaca.

the Maya were not under the necessity of constructing elaborate irrigation works as were the ancient inhabitants of Peru. One watercourse alone is known, and that appears to be rather in the nature of a drain to carry off superfluous water than an aqueduct. This is at Palenque, and consists of a stone-lined subterranean channel, roofed with the typical Maya vault.

As regards the arrangement of buildings it is impossible to discuss in detail the ground-plans of the various sites, but attention may be called to the prevailing tendency to group the most important structures round square or rectangular courts. Beyond this, little community of plan is observed, and indeed in the central area the builders were often obliged to suit their arrangement to the exigencies of the site. Thus Palenque and Copan, being built in river-valleys, exhibit less regularity of arrangement than such sites as Tikal, where the country is more or less of a plain. There is evidence too that many of the cities grew by accretion beyond the limits intended by the first builders, and this fact will explain much of the irregularity observable in plan. But throughout, the assemblage of buildings round a court is a prominent feature, and the court would seem to have been the unit of growth (see Pl. XXVI, 2; p. 338). It is a noticeable fact that none of the sites in the east and centre of the Maya area exhibit any defensive qualities. The courts are open at the corners, and the sites selected for building are evidently not chosen with any strategic insight. In the west, however, the case is somewhat different, and we find settlements, such as Iximché and Utatlan, built as it were on peninsulas almost surrounded by inaccessible barrancas and connected with the "mainland" only by a narrow neck which could be easily defended by a mere handful of men. This fact goes far towards indicating that the ruins in the centre were centres of religious and ceremonial life rather than cities in the modern sense of the word.

The question as to how far Maya buildings were definitely oriented is rather complex. On the whole far fewer indications of the practice occur in the Maya region than in the Mexican. To speak generally the sites at Seibal and in southern Yucatan, as far as surveyed, are more carefully oriented than in northern Yucatan and elsewhere. The buildings at Copan are not oriented, but here and at such sites as Palenque, the surrounding hills and forests obscure the true horizon, and the arrangement of courts may yet be found to square with the apparent point of rising of certain heavenly bodies. An accurate survey of Tikal would throw a good deal of light upon the problem, since the situation of the ruins in comparatively level country, combined with the great height of the pyramids, would have enabled the inhabitants to obtain a far truer horizon than at most sites. Though the Maya did not for the most part use large masses of stone for building, yet they were able to handle monoliths of considerable size, as may be seen from the number of carved stelæ which constitute so important a feature of many of the ruined sites. 'These stelæ consist of monolithic pillars, approximately rectangular and decorated with relief carving, usually on all sides. The largest of these are found at Quirigua, but the art of the neighbouring site of Copan (PI. XXI; p. 236) is the finer, since many of the stelæ here are carved in such bold relief as to approximate to sculpture in the round. At these two sites most of the stelæ present on their principal faces a human or divine figure, usually represented en face, and holding the sky-bar (occasionally replaced at Quirigua by the ceremonial axe). At Tikal, Naranjo (Pl. XXIII; p. 302), and Menché (Pl. XXII; p. 294) the relief is less bold, and the figures are usually therefore shown in profile, at any rate as far as the face is concerned. At Seibal and Piedras Negras profile figures predominate, but a few occur shown en face (Pl. XX; p. 224), among them the figures seated in niches already mentioned as characteristic of the latter locality. At Palenque only one stela has been found, but on the other hand comparatively little stone-carving occurs here, though the deficiency is amply supplied by the quality of the magnificent mural tablets in relief which constitute the chief feature of the site. The sky-bar does not appear on the stelæ of Piedras Negras, though the ceremonial axe is occasionally seen. Both emblems occur at Naranjo, Tikal, Seibal and Menché. A few stelæ have been found in Yucatan, e.g. at Sayil; but they are confined to the northern portion of the district and even here are rare and poorly carved. The exact purpose of the stelæ is problematical. In the large majority of cases they stand in definite relation to certain buildings, in fact all at Naranjo, Seibal, Menché and Piedras

2

MAYA

1. Sculptured monolith P., Quirigua, Guatemala
2. Plan of ruins at Copan, Honduras

Negras are connected with temples. At Copan and Quirigua some appear to be independent. They are usually found situated in the courts, though at Piedras Negras a series exists arranged along the lower terrace of a foundation-mound. Many are furnished with altars in front of them (Fig. 81), and they appear to have been the objects of some cult. A most important point in connection with them lies in the fact that so many of them bear dates in the long count as described in chapter X, and this fact, combined with the statements of early authors that the historical Maya were wont to mark the

Fig. 81. — Stone altar (Q) at Copan.⁠(After Maudslay}

passage of a katun by setting up a "stone," lends colour to the opinion that the early Maya followed a similar practice. Many of the dates mark quarter katuns, but many again do not, and though we may conclude that they were in some way commemorative monuments, it is impossible at present to define their use more exactly. As stated before, many of the stelæ were painted in colours, and plain stelæ occur at Tikal and elsewhere, which probably once bore some painted design. The evident relation which Maya sculpture bears to woodcarving renders it probable that many wooden stelæ may once have existed, especially in the earliest times. It is worth noting that at Copan the stone foundations which support the stelæ enclose small cruciform vaults, reproducing in miniature the souterrains found in connection with some of the buildings at Mitla.

At present the attention of most archæologists has been confined to the ruins themselves, and little search has been made for the sources whence the building material was obtained. Quarries however have been located in the neighbourhoods of Naranjo, Copan and Quirigua, and the presence at the last site of canal-like excavations suggests that the blocks were conveyed thither by water. A thorough investigation of such quarries as can be discovered would be most valuable in casting much light upon the process of working stone among the early Maya.

In the east of the central area the most important site is that of Tikal; the ruins are extensive, and suggest that the place was long an important centre. The dates attached to the monuments are of great interest (for the comparative dating of the monuments, see Appendix ITT), since they range from an early period, and the extreme solidity of the buildings as compared with those of other sites seems to hint that they were the work of more primitive architects than those of Palenque for instance. The pyramids are of interest, since they present a far steeper pitch than those of any other locality (Pl. XXV, 2; p. 332). Certain of the stelæ and inscriptions are of a rather rude and archaic character, but the wood-carvings (Fig. 48; p. 225) are of particular merit, and are very similar in style to the stone lintels in low relief of Menché. The fact that the wooden lintels have been preserved here while they have for the most part decayed at other sites, is no argument against the antiquity of Tikal, for they are situated well within the buildings, which are, as remarked above, of very solid construction, and furnished with small single doors, besides being raised far above the ground on lofty foundation-mounds. On the whole I think that the architectural and artistic evidence supports the early dates which appear on the stelæ, and I should place Tikal as perhaps the earliest Maya site of which we have definite knowledge, though it is evident that it was inhabited well on into later times when the Maya had become far more expert in stone-carving than when the first buildings were erected there. The neighbouring site of Naranjo bears certain similarities in plan to that of Tikal, and the reliefs are in very similar style. The dating of the monuments falls into two well-defined periods, the western court being earlier than the eastern; both however are considerably later than the earlier buildings of Tikal, of which Naranjo was probably an offshoot, outlasting the mother city by more than half a century. Seibal, where the ruins are far less extensive, is evidently a related site, though the reliefs are comparatively clumsy in style, and probably represent a decadent and "provincial" form of art. It is interesting to note that the earliest date at this site falls about the same time as the last of Tikal, the latest recording the same katun as the latest at Naranjo.

Menché, like Copan, is built upon the bank of a river, and the physical character of the site prevented anything like symmetrical arrangement. The courts do not correspond one with another in position, and careful investigation would be necessary before it could be stated that any of the pyramids were so placed as to provide for the observation of the rising of a planet over the surrounding hills. The dates would make Menché later than Tikal as far as its foundation is concerned, and the less massive nature of its architecture and the high quality of its relief-carving would imply the same. But it is noticeable that the most numerous reliefs consist of sculptured lintels, and though these are of stone, and not of wood as at Tikal, the technique is that of woodcarving, and the style is very similar to that of Tikal. The artistic quality of the Menché sculptures is relatively very high, and the lintels, one of which is figured on Pl. XXII, 2; p. 294, are some of the finest examples of low-relief carving found in the Maya area, ranking with the bolder sculptures of Copan, and not far behind the stucco work and still lower reliefs of Palenque. Further features of this site will be mentioned in connection with Palenque.

Copan (Pl. XXVI, 2; p. 338) and Quirigua evidently bear a close relation one to the other, and are differentiated from all other sites by the size and workmanship of the stelæ. Unfortunately but few traces of buildings remain, and it is impossible to determine their exact type. All that can be said is that the walls were thick, and that both in this respect and in the ground-plan (see Fig. 76; p. 327) the buildings probably represent a stage of development midway between Tikal and other sites. With this placing the dates on the Copan monuments agree, but Quirigua was a later site, almost certainly founded from Copan, though it flourished alongside of it until both records cease at the end of the ninth cycle. The monuments of Quirigua show a certain technical superiority over those of Copan, the stelæ are larger, and often ornamented with far greater wealth of detail. The broader treatment of the Copan carvings (Pl. XXI and Fig. 81; pp. 236 and 339), however, gives a nobler effect to the stele of that site, though Quirigua cannot in any sense be regarded as decadent, as witness the magnificent monster with a human figure in its jaws shown on Pl. XXVI, 1; p. 338.

Piedras Negras is a site of great interest. On the one hand the stelæ manifest a very great range of quality, on the other the dates commence early, though not so early as Tikal, and end in the same katun as those of that city. The rudest stelæ bear a rather interesting resemblance to the Huaxtec sculptures of the Panuco valley (Pl. X, 1; p. 108), while the best are of a type peculiar to this locality. The latter represent a figure en face, seated in a niche to which a ladder gives access,

1⁠2⁠3

MAYA
Ruins at Palenque, Chiapas
1.	The "Temple of the Sun"
2.	The "Palace"
3.	The "Temple of the Cross"

and before which a priest is sometimes represented standing (Pl. XX; p. 224). It may be noted in passing that the board, or, more likely, cloth with the footsteps marked on it, laid upon the ladder, is paralleled in the Dresden MS. by the streamer with similar markings attached to the tree which represents the god (see Fig. 58; p. 264, lower register). The exact relations of Piedras Negras are difficult to determine. On the one hand certain points in connection with costume, notably the voluminous turban-like head-dresses seen on many of the figures, recall the art of Copan (e.g. Fig. 81); on the other hand many of the flatter reliefs bear a distinct resemblance to those of Naranjo, without attaining the perfection of those at Menché. An interesting fragment represents a figure seated in profile with a colossal jaguar towering behind him; unfortunately only the feet and legs of the latter remain, but sufficient to show that the whole scene must have been almost a replica of one of the wooden lintels of 'Tikal. Jaguar figures, or men with jaguar masks and claws, or claws alone, also occur on stelæ at Seibal and Quirigua.

Palenque stands alone. Architecturally it is by far the most advanced of the cities of the central area, while the artistic qualities of the stucco reliefs, and the low relief stone carvings (Figs. 49 and 52), the technique of which appears to be based on stucco-work, place them in a category by themselves. It was, in fact, only at Copan and Quirigua that the Maya showed anything like mastery over stone. The deficiency lay no doubt not so much in the artistic faculties of the mason, as in the lack of suitable tools, but it is a fact that only at the southern sites he displayed definite signs of modifying the technique borrowed from wood-carving to suit a less tractable material. Even the fine reliefs of Menché are wood-carvings translated into stone, and the same applies to the reliefs at other sites, except perhaps to the figures in niches at Piedras Negras, which in other respects noted above display a certain similarity to the Copan sculptures. When the Maya artist began to develop the art of modelling in stucco he showed that the

Fig.82.—Stone relief; Temple of the Sun, Palenque.
(After Maudslay)

quality of his work depended to a great extent upon the plasticity of his material, while he had gained much in technique from his experience in stone. A peculiar feature of Palenque is the comparative restraint exhibited by the artist. That he still loved complexity of detail is shown by such reliefs as Fig. 61 (p. 297), but he no longer feared the vacant space, and appreciated its value as a background. The dates on the monuments do not assist us in any way to determine the epoch which saw the rise of Palenque. The initial series in the temples give dates relating to the first cycle or even before, that is to say more than 3000 years b.c., and as such they must be regarded as purely legendary. It is impossible to believe that the site was of early foundation compared with the others. It would be against all experience to suggest that the people who built Palenque could at a subsequent period have adopted the clumsy and unnecessarily laborious architecture of Tikal. On the other hand, the site of Palenque bears a certain similarity to that of Menché, including the presence at both of buildings with underground passages and chambers, though the "' palace" at Palenque is a far more elaborate construction than the analogous building at Menché, being in fact a complex of associated buildings. All the evidence seems to point to the conclusion that Palenque is the latest of the central Maya sites, and that it is most closely associated with Menché. In further proof of the latter supposition I might mention the so-called "crosses," surmounted by birds, held by the figures in more than one of the Menché reliefs, which have their counterparts in the "crosses" of Palenque alone. The significance of these I have already discussed on p. 257.

I think, then, that the various dates found on the monuments may be taken as a fair indication of the relative periods at which the various cities flourished, except of course those at Palenque. Arguments based upon the style of decoration alone are apt to be misleading, especially as far as the lesser sites are concerned, since it is only natural that at these the workmanship should be of an inferior and "provincial" character. Allowance too must be made for the varying capacity of local artists, and above all for the relative tractability of the local materials. The evidence of architecture is more valuable, and, to speak generally, supports the dates as given by the glyphs, though the possibility of greater conservatism at some sites, as compared with others, must not be overlooked. On the whole the best results must necessarily accrue from a careful consideration of all three, with due allowance for a natural tendency to quote dates relating to past and often mythical history.

With respect to certain similarities presented by the attributes of the figures depicted at certain sites, allusion has been made above to the hand appearing as part of the head-dress at Copan, Piedras Negras and Palenque (p. 227), to the jaguar-man at Tikal, Seibal, Piedras Negras and Quirigua (p. 343), and to the fish and flower, also shown as a head-dress, at Naranjo, Palenque, Chichen Itza and on the Nebaj vase (p. 310). Attention will be called later to a peculiar interlaced ornament, also borne on the head, by figures at Copan, Piedras Negras, Menché and Naranjo, and found again at Xochicalco, Teayo and in the Mexican valley (p. 355). One more may be mentioned, the head-dress representing a heron with a fish or frog in its beak, seen at Palenque (Fig. 61; p. 297) and twice at Seibal, an ornament which recalls the Quiché legend of how they sent eastward to a country, most probably to be identified with the Usumacinta valley, to obtain royal insignia, and received amongst other objects the plumes of the heron.

Of the Yucatec sites the most important is that of Chichen Itza. The remains here are considerable, though they conform to no definite plan save that the same arrangement of building round rectangular courts prevails. The buildings themselves are typically Maya, though structurally they exhibit a certain advance upon those of the central area, and Maya glyphs are found throughout, with certain important exceptions. Of the peculiarities which distinguish the architecture of Yucatan from that of the last region, many have already been mentioned, including the mosaic ornament with which the façades of buildings are decorated. But another important feature remains to be recorded. Throughout the whole of Yucatan only two dates in the long count have been discovered, and one of these is at Chichen Itza. The site is interesting as providing evidence of more than one stage of construction. One of the finest buildings, the so-called Monjas, shows plainly that a considerable addition was

Fig. 83.—The "Monjas" at Chichen Itza, showing how the original structure has been enlarged.
(After Holmes)

made to the foundation at a time later than the original building (Fig. 83). At the same period an additional storey was added, and one of the chambers in the earlier structure was filled solid with masonry to support the weight. Certain annexes were also built (PL XXIX, 2; p. 350), in the decoration of which ornamental fragments from the façades of previous "palaces" were included, but the inscriptions are in regular Maya characters, though no date in the long count is included. Other buildings in the immediate neighbourhood are in similar style and belong presumably to the same epoch. But further north is a large group of structures of an entirely different character of ornamentation. These include the famous ball-court and attached temples (PL XXVIII; p. 348), the Castillo (also seen in Pl. XXVIII), a large structure of which only the numerous square sculptured columns remain, and the so-called "Temple of the Tables." On these buildings neither Maya glyphs nor mosaic masks are found, while the Castillo and upper ball-court temple are furnished with serpent-columns similar to those of Tulan. In the lower temple attached to the ball-court is an elaborate relief showing figures, exhibiting no signs of cranial deformation, Fig. 84.—Caryatid figure, Chichen Itza. armed with spears and spear-throwers, assisting, so it would seem, at the obsequies of some personage in the centre who is distinguished by a huge feathered snake which overshadows him. Many of the figures are accompanied by glyphs which are distinctly Nahua in type, while their ornaments and dress combine both Nahua and Maya characters; further, a sun-disc in Nahua style occurs at the top of the relief. In the Castillo are atlantean figures carved in relief in similar style, and in the Temple of the Tables were found a number of slabs supported by small caryatides (Fig. 84), carved in the round, exactly similar to some which have been found at Tlaxcala. Finally, several stone recumbent figures supporting vases, of the type shown on PL VIII, 2; p. 74, have been discovered buried in the neighbourhood.^[1] The buildings themselves, as far as preserved, present, architecturally speaking, Maya characteristics, except the large site with the numerous square columns, which probably supported a flat roof laid on transverse beams. To the west and south of the buildings first described are many unexplored

MAYA

The temple of the ball-court (left) and the "Castillo" at Chichen Itza, Yucatan

mounds, probably the remains of the earliest settlement of all, and it is in one of these that a slab bearing a date in the long count, but later than any in the central area, has been discovered. Thus we appear to have three, or possibly four, periods represented at Chichen Itza, the first by the mounds where the initial date was found, the second and possible third by the Monjas group with its reconstructions in typical Yucatec style, the last by the northern group with its definite "Toltec" affinities. It is to be noted that this corresponds in a most remarkable manner with the Tutul Xiu tradition. The first settlement would be that of which they heard when they were yet at Balcalar, the second and doubtful third periods would represent their own occupation and reoccupation, while the last would illustrate the result of the Nahua influx which brought about the fall of the league of Mayapan. The other date in the long count which has been found in the Yucatec area is at Tulum. This is a very early date, in the sixth katun of the ninth cycle, and may possibly relate to some event in past history. At any rate it supports the evidence furnished by Chichen Itza that the Maya peoples who reckoned by the long count and built the cities of the central area had penetrated into Yucatan before the arrival of the Tutul Xiu. Tulum has not yet been satisfactorily explored, but the buildings there are neither imposing nor richly decorated; the site however presents one feature of interest in so far as it is surrounded on three sides by a wall, the fourth being protected by the sea.

Uxmal, which, according to the Tutul Xiu account, was founded from Chichen Itza, shows, as regards the majority of its buildings, a very close correspondence with the Monjas group of the latter site. Most of the buildings exhibit the true Yucatec character, including the mosaic masks with projecting "trunks," and pilastered ornament is also found. A few however do not show these characteristics to the same degree, and present abnormal varieties of cornice, while others display signs of alteration and modification which imply at least that the site was inhabited for a considerable period. The most striking buildings, perhaps the finest in the true Yucatec style which exist, are the so-called "House of the Governor" (Pl. XXX p. 358), the "Temple of the Magician," peculiar in its oblong pyramid with rounded corners (Fig. 73, h; p. 321),^[2] and the "House of the Doves," distinguished by a van-dyked roof-comb ornamented with open-work tracery. Lack of space forbids allusion to the many other Yucatec sites, such as Labna, Sayil, Kabah, and so forth, but it may be said that they embody similar forms of decoration such as the grotesque mosaic mask, and geometrical and pilastered ornament (Pl. XXV, 1; p. 332), though the structures can hardly be said to compare with those of Chichen Itza and Uxmal.

As regards British Honduras, mention has already been made of the interesting building at Santa Rita, decorated with frescoes somewhat akin in style to those at Mitla, though rather nearer the true Maya in type. It is difficult not to see in this art an extension of the "Toltec" influence so evident at Chichen Itza, combined with a stronger element of the local Maya art. But buildings in this region are few, though the substructures of former edifices are common. On the Colombia branch of the Rio Grande is found an extensive two-tiered foundation-mound, supporting a number of stepped pyramids, which recall to some extent the site of Uxmal, in so far as the corners of most are rounded. Both mound and pyramids are faced with cut stone, and quantities of brick are also found which appear to have been used as hearting and paving material.

2

MAYA
1.	Restoration of the ball-court temple at Chichen Itza,
Yucatan; after Maudslay. (See Plate XXVIII)
2.	Buildings of the "Monjas" group, Chichen Itza, Yucatan

One of the most interesting ruins of British Honduras consists of a huge mound near Benque Viejo, sixty feet high and built of limestone, which supports a three storeyed stone building. This is surrounded by three others of similar type, at the foot of each of which is a plain stone monolith, recalling the plain stelæ mentioned above, which doubtless were once ornamented with painted designs. The ruins of this site probably belong to the same series as Tikal, Naranjo, Seibal, etc., and though more excavation, combined with accurate surveying, is necessary before we can speak with confidence regarding the monuments of British Honduras as a whole, we may assume that they fall into two classes, viz. ruins connected with the early central Maya area, those to the north of British Honduras at Tulum being in part a "provincial" extension of the early culture,^[3] and later edifices which owed their birth to Toltec influence filtered southward through Yucatan.

In the west of the Maya area, the remains, though plentiful, are inferior in quality, and have not attracted the attention of explorers to the extent which their importance, as indicating the spread of Maya culture, and its relation to that of Oaxaca, deserves. Sacchana and its neighbourhood is a site of great interest, since Seler has discovered there two stone slabs bearing initial dates in the Maya style, falling just each side of the date at Chichen Itza, which is otherwise the latest known. The style of these slabs is rude and decadent, but they are of the highest importance as indicating that the early method of reckoning time had spread as far west at least as the department of Huehuetenango. Otherwise the remains of this district are rude and coarsely built, of unsquared blocks usually without mortar; but mortar is found in some cases, notably in the tlaxtli-courts, which, as well as the pyramidal mounds, bear a very close resemblance to those of Quiengola in Oaxaca (p. 175). A feature of this district 1s constituted by the number of cave-temples, which again recall the last-named province of Mexico. It is perhaps worthy of mention that a tendency appears in this neighbourhood to arrange temple-mounds in groups of three, in a straight line from north to south, with the stairways facing west. The western position of pyramid stairways, which implies that the worshippers faced east, has already been observed in Oaxaca and Mexico. An account of certain ruins at Utatlan, Iximché and Rabinal is given in the works of Maudslay, but they cannot compare with those of the central Maya area, and seem rather to resemble those of the district of Huehuetenango.

The Maya appear to have resorted occasionally to caves as dwelling-places, and certain investigations have been made in caverns at Copan and Loltun (immediately south of Uxmal), in Yucatan. The remains however do not imply that their occupation was of early date, and it is probable that the caves served as places of temporary refuge in times of war. This chapter would be incomplete without some mention of the peculiar bottle-shaped subterranean structures found at certain sites in Yucatan. These are known as "chultunes," and, since they invariably occur at places remote from rivers, may almost certainly be regarded as cisterns for preserving a supply of water, though in some cases they have served the secondary purpose of burial chambers. They are lined with dressed stone or a coat of stucco, and the mouth is furnished with a stone ring which is closed by a slab. Careful exploration of the chultunes at Labna has been made by Thompson and reported in the "Memoirs" of the Peabody Museum.

It will be unnecessary to enter into a discussion of Maya art, since the subject has been fully treated by Spinden in a monograph which was published only a week or so before this chapter was written, and, moreover, much may be gathered from the preceding pages supplemented by the illustrations. The kinship of the stone reliefs with wood-carving, except at Copan and Quirigua, has already been indicated, and the symbolic nature of Maya ornament is too obvious to need especial mention. Attention may be called to the use of glyphs, extremely ornamental in themselves, to give balance to a design, and to the horror vacui which appears in all reliefs except those of Palenque. Though bound by convention, the result in a large measure of the symbolic nature of his designs, the Maya artist occupies a relatively high plane amongst barbarous peoples. In particular the quality of his line is excellent,

Fig. 85.—Stone gargoyle, Copan. (After Gordon)

even in stone, and in certain respects, notably foreshortening (especially in the treatment of feathers, for which see Figs. 61 and 87; pp. 297 and 367), he was superior to the sculptor of Egypt or Assyria. One peculiarity of Maya art lies in the fact that the artist was obsessed by the motive of the serpent (rattle-snake) head. In nearly all its essentials this design appears in the remarkable gargoyle from Copan shown in Fig. 85. We have here the exaggerated upper jaw, the front fang, and the curl at the corner of the mouth. One detail is lacking, viz. the nose-ornaments which were usually added to the reptile. Maudslay has shown how derivatives of this design, often modified almost beyond identification, are constantly applied to every form of ornament, such as the edges of girdle-flaps and so forth, and the point has been elaborated by Spinden. Most interesting is the almost invariable occurrence of the serpent-motive on the wings of birds (e.g. Figs. 48 and 49; pp. 225 and 230), the combination no doubt expressing the high god Kukulkan, who, among the early Maya, seems to have been represented only in this indirect way (see p. 226). In the later art, especially that exhibiting Toltec affinities, we have a more direct delineation of the deity in the shape of a human figure whose face is surrounded by the jaws of a serpent, but who is provided with wings carved in the best Maya style (Fig. 87). The foreshortening of feathers has already been mentioned, but it may be added that perhaps no people has shown in its art such an appreciation of this form of ornament as the Maya, and for sheer beauty the feather-motive shares the honours with the plant-design (see Fig. 60; p. 289), often shown in combination with fishes and grotesque masks, which appears not only on the sculptures, but also in the frescoes.

 

---

 

1. One of these was also found by Maudslay, near Quirigua.
2. The corners of the Castillo at Chichen Itza also appear to have been slightly rounded and not square, as shown in Fig. 73,f; p. 321.
3. The qualification is necessary, since Tulum appears to have been inhabited at the conquest.