A R A B I A east of Jebel Aja, and Doughty shows to the south of that range. are formed by a series of short water-course valleys, which conThe rocky hills of the Nefud, like those of Jof, are of sandstone, tain the first stages of the caravan routes into the interior. The varying in colour from yellow to red and purple, but weathered Akaba consists of a wide expanse of flat, featureless plateau, black on the upper surface. Jebel Shanimar itself is composed of without a habitation or even sign of life — waterless and waste red granite. The general characteristics of these mountains and — but broken by occasional masses of flat tableland formation, of their vegetation seem to be similar to those of Mount Sinai. which lie superincumbent on the lower plain about 80 feet high. The plain level at Hail is estimated by Blunt to be 4000 feet above On the top level of the Akaba (a little over 4000 feet above seadevel, and the summits of the Shammar Mountains to be 2000 sea), is a wide scattering of small black basaltic stones, which feet higher. The character of the Nefud plains apparently differs rest on the sandstones and limestones of which the range is essentially from that described by Palgrave. The Nefud is now formed. In the gullies cut out of these tableland formations said to consist of a wide spread of coarse red sand, well clothed (which are the higher level or upper flats of the Akaba), as also with shrubs, and after a rainy winter covered with grass and in the valleys approaching the plateau, the myrrh and frankinflowers. A few irregular low ridges exist in the Nefud, but they cense trees, with various forms of mimosa, are to be found. It are not a prominent feature. On the other hand, the whole plain is curious that the Beduins, who own the plateau, do not themis pitted with deep hollows, shaped like a horse-shoe, with their selves gather the produce of the trees, but let districts out to points all set with great regularity towards the same point of the the Somalis, who come in due season to collect the frankincense. compass. These depressions are called by the Arabs “fulj,” and The air of the plateau is fresh, keen, and invigorating. The vary in depth from 20 to 200 feet, and proportionately in width : similarity of its conformation to some parts of Abyssinia is striking; the widest being about a quarter of a mile across. Another and it appears that many points of similarity are also to be noted natural phenomenon which was previously described in consider- between the coasts of Southern Arabia and those of Southern able detail, but which Blunt found to be unsupported by local Baluchistan. From the Akaba many valleys dip with rapid and evidence, is the occurrence of the simoom, or poisonous wind, in sudden descent, flanked by steep red sandstone cliffs, into the these plains. Sandstorms are of frequent occurrence ; but they main central depression of Hadramut. So steep, and so different are not poisonous. The deadly poison blast, which not merely from valleys whose formation is due to erosion, are these gates of suffocates by mechanical means, but which absolutely disseminates Hadramut, that it seems possible that they are but branches of a a poisonous vapour or gas, must be dissociated from the plains of fiord, or arm of the sea, which once filled in the whole Hadramut the Nefud. The expression “nejd” is ascertained to be purely depression. The upper valley of the Hadramut, round about its geographical, and in no sense political. In Arabia it is applied to capital of Shibam and the courtly residence of its chief at A1 all the high-level districts lying within the Nefuds. It includes Katan, is a land of cultivation and prosperity, of palm groves and the three provinces of Jebel Shammar, Kasim, and Aared. As towns and palaces, flourishing chiefly on the basis of wealth employed by the Turks, the name is applied to their latest acquired in India, The sultan, who is the head of the A1 Kaiti conquests on the seaboard of El Hasa, and so has led to a misappre- family of the Tali tribe, is jemadar or general of the Arab hension as to the extent of Turkish sovereignty in Arabia. The regiments in the service of the Nawab of Haidarabad. This conplain of the Hamad, which Blunt crossed from Jebel Shammar to nexion with India is the secret of the wealth of the A1 Kaiti the borders of Arabia at Nejef, south of Babylon, has a uniform family. The dwellers in the towns, and the cultivators of upward grade from the Sea of Nejef to Shammar. This slope is Hadramut belong to races of Arabs who are of later importation estimated to be about 10 feet per mile, and is not unbroken. It into the country than the Beduin. The chief tribes are the Tail, is due to “a series of shelves terminating in abrupt edges one Ketiri, Minhali, Amri, and Tamini, who are constantly at war above the other, the edges facing the line of descent.” The Nefud with the Beduin. The Beduin, who are scattered in wild tribes of Eastern Arabia, as described by Sir Lewis Felly, differs from all over the country, are the caravan leaders and the carriers, the Nefud north of Shammar in some essential particulars. It rearing their own camels, and owning large territories in the consists of a series of huge sand ranges trending curvilinearly in highlands. They are numerous and powerful, never living in a north-west and south-east direction, stretching roughly parallel tents like the northern Beduin. The richer amongst them occupy to the Arab littoral of the Persian Gulf southwards from Jebel houses, and the poorer, caves. The Sharifs and Saiads are an Shammar. Between the ridges are wide spaces of hard level plain, important hierarchy, tracing their descent from the prophet, and as much as from 7 to 8 miles in width. The central plateau com- exacting the homage of all who are under their widespread mences to rise into Nejd proper from the district of Sedair. The influence. They boast a pedigree purer than that of any other route from the Persian Gulf westward, crossing this eastern Nefud, Saiad family in Arabia. They are dwellers in towns and cities. terminates at Riad (the Wahabi capital), 250 miles to the south- The half-bred and imported African slaves form the fourth class of east of Hail. this mixed community. They are all of them Mahommedans, many Bent’s expeditions to the south coast of Arabia and Hadramut of them wealthy, and some superior in education to their masters. geographically place these regions in an entirely new light. The tillers of the soil, personal servants, and soldiers of the chiefs Hadramut Hadramut is no longer to be regarded simply as a mostly belong to this class. and southern district of Arabia intervening between the The name Ad is given in the Koran to the Sabsean Southern sea coas^ and the central desert, but as a broad central Arabia. artery running for a hundred miles or more parallel to inhabitants of Southern Arabia, and is still recognized by the coast, through which the valleys of the high Arabian plateau discharge their scanty supplies of water to the sea the modern inhabitants. Within the limits of near Saihut, towards which point the whole system gradually the coast district there is no evidence of Addite slopes. Into this hotbed of fanaticism but one European (Herr ruins, a circumstance which confirms the opinion Leo Hirsch) had succeeded in penetrating before Bent, and he that the ancient trade in frankincense was carried on travelled in disguise. Theodore Bent and his wife travelled chiefly by the caravan road passing eastwards from Aden without disguise, and with a considerable train of followers. It seems to be clearly proved by the Himyaritic inscriptions found to Hadramut and Oman, very little use being made of in the valley, that for five centuries b.c. the term Hadramut the harbours and ports of the sterile coast. The movable, applied to this valley only, the meaning of it being the “ Valley wind-blown sand which collects in masses in the centre of Death.” Here from time immemorial existed the historic trade in frankincense and myrrh, which centred in Shibam (a place of of the valleys, has probably long ago buried such some importance even now), from whence the produce of the valley ancient ruins as date from Himyaritic times, and all was conveyed westwards by the great frankincense road across that is now observable is to be found on more elevated Arabia of which an account is given to us by Claudius Ptolemseus. sites above the plain. A distinct connexion is to be The narrow coast-line of this part of Arabia is termed Sahil, and between Mokalla and Saihut it is described as a “most traced between some of the rude stone relics of the past uncompromisingly arid country.” Hot springs exist at intervals, on which inscriptions exist, and those evidences of sunpointing to the volcanic origin of the region, and where they worship which were found by Bent at Zimbabwe in are found they are utilized for the purposes of cultivation • but Mashonaland, where the arrangement of rocks and stones their occurrence is rare, and the coast generally is marked by possesses a similar system of orientation. Of the intian extended waste of barren sterility. Mokalla, Shehr and Kosair are the chief coast towns. They carry on an active trade mate connexion, if not actual relationship, which existed by means of their dhows and buggalows with Aden, Muskat many centuries before our era between the Sabaeans of Bombay, and the Somali coast. A curious geological feature o’f Southern Arabia and those Arab people who worked the the coast are the basalt fields near Kosair, which spread across gold-mines of Mashona, and built forts to protect them, the flat country in a stratum of black rock-like lava. The Arabs attribute this basaltic effusion to the destruction of paean there can be little doubt. In the Wadi Sher, which leads cities. Probably it is the source from whence Egypt and Assyria northwards from the head of the Hadramut into the derived material for statuary art. The highlands beyond the central districts, there exist the remains of at least one strip of low coast are called Akaba. The approaches to them great Himyaritic town, with traces of megalithic buildings 514
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