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124 A Short History of The World posed to have sat down and composed them as Milton composed Paradise Lost. Whether there really was such a poet, whether he composed or only wrote down and polished these epics and so forth, is a favourite quarrelling ground for the erudite. We need not con- cern ourselves with such bickerings here. The thing that matters from our point of view is that the Greeks were in possession of their epics in the eighth century B.C., and that they were a common possession and a link between their various tribes, giving them a sense of fellowship as against the outer barbarians. They were a group of kindred peoples linked by the spoken and afterwards by the written word, and sharing common ideals of courage and behaviour. The epics showed the Greeks a barbaric people without iron, without writing, and still not living in cities. They seem to have lived at first in open villages of huts around the halls of their chiefs out- side the ruins of the iEgean cities they had destroyed. Then they began to wall their cities and to adopt the idea of temples from the people they had conquered. It has been said that the cities of the primitive civilizations grew up about the altar of some tribal god, and that the wall was added ; in the cities of the Greeks the wall pre- ceded the temple. They began to trade and send out colonies. By the seventh century B.C. a new series of cities had grown up in the valleys and islands of Greece, forgetful of the ^gean cities and civiliza- tion that had preceded them ; Athens, Sparta, Corinth, Thebes, Samos, Miletus among the chief. There were already Greek settle- ments along the coast of the Black Sea and in Italy and Sicily. The heel and toe of Italy was called Magna Grsecia. Marseilles was a Greek town established on the site of an earlier Phoenician colony. Now countries which are great plains or which have as a chief means of transport some great river like the Euphrates or Nile tend to become united under some common rule. The cities of Egypt and the cities of Sumeria, for example, ran together under one system of government. But the Greek peoples were cut up among islands and mountain valleys ; both Greece and Magna Graecia are very moun- tainous ; and the tendency was all the other way. When the Greeks come into history they are divided up into a number of little states which showed no signs of coalescence. They are different even in race. Some consist chiefly of citizens of this or that Greek tribe, Ionic, jEolian or Doric ; some have a mingled population of Greeks and descendants of the pre-Greek " Mediterranean " folk ; some have an unmixed free citizenship of Greeks lording it over an enslaved