556 INTELLECT AND FAITH. Abelard, as the leader of the Nominalists, and William of Cham- peaux at the head of the Realists. Discussion continued in the schools with constantly increasing bitterness, though neither side dared to push their own views to their ultimate conclusions. Real- ism in a modified form achieved a triumph with the immense au- thority of Albert us Magnus and Thomas Aquinas. Duns Scotus was a Realist, though he differed with Aquinas on the problem of individuation, and the Realists became divided into the opposing factions of Thomists and Scotists. While they were thus weak- ened with dissension, William of Ockham revived Nominalism, and it became bolder than ever. The perennial hostility between the Dominicans and Franciscans tended to range the two Orders under the opposing banners, while Ockham's defence of Louis of Bavaria in his quarrel with the papacy served to impress upon the new school of jSTominalists his views upon the relations between Church and State.* The schools continued to resound with the clangor of disputa- tion, occasionally growing so hot that blows supplied the deficiency of words, and even murder is said to have not been wanting. Un- der Peter d'xVilly and John Gerson the University of Paris was Nominalist. With the English domination the Realists triumphed and expelled their adversaries, who were unable to return until the restoration of the French monarchy. In 1465 there arose in the University of Louvain a strife which lasted for ten years over some propositions of Pierre de la Rive on fate and divine foreknowledge, in which the rival sects took sides. The University of Paris was drawn in ; the Nominalists triumphed in condemning de la Rive, and the Realists took their revenge by procuring from Louis XL an edict prohibiting the teaching of Nominalist doctrines in the University and in all the schools of the kingdom ; all Nominalist books were boxed up and sealed until 1481, when Louis was per- suaded to recall his edict, and the university rejoiced to regain her liberty. One tragic incident in the long quarrel has been already alluded to in the trial of John of Wesel which led to his death in prison, and it illustrates how readily scholastic ardor assumed that in gratifying its vindictiveness it was vindicating the faith. The contemporary reporter of the trial assumes that the persecution
- Johann. Saresberiens. Metalog. n. 17= — Tocco, 26, 39, 40, 57.
