The enforcement of the treaties of 1858, whereby diplomatic ministers were established in the capital and certain of the ports opened to foreign residence and commerce, was the signal for a manifestation of great discontent throughout the empire. Perry's treaty had been bitterly opposed by most of the leading daimios, and they had steadily set themselves against all foreign intercourse. Towards the Shogun and his government, which had made the treaties, their attacks were mainly directed, but the foreigners were destined to experience the first assaults.
The dual form of government, which had existed for centuries, was involved in the controversy. The Mikado, or emperor, resided at the interior city of Kioto, and had been kept in virtual retirement, being sovereign only in name. The Shogun, the military commander, whose ancestors had usurped the executive functions of government, was the real ruler of the empire. But many of the daimios had long been restive under the usurper, and the feeling of discontent was already widespread at the time of the coming of Perry.
The treaties added fuel to the flame, and the cry was raised, "Honor the Mikado, and drive out the foreign barbarians." Harris's journal shows that he scarcely understood the internal situation at the time of his negotiations. He frequently charges the Japanese officials with bad faith and falsehood, in protesting that they could not yield to his demands because of the prejudice and opposition of the enemies of the government, when subsequent events showed that they were sincere in these declarations. After he had been in
