NOTES AND ABSTRACTS 891
travel even the whole of one country ; hence its markets are very limited. A large syndicate can travel the whole world. The small manufacturer must receive informa- tion as to the views of consumers from merchants who may often be interested in misrepresenting. A syndicate comes in immediate contact with all of its markets, and receives illumination from markets using similar products from other sources. In fine, the syndicate in the world of business is a new and larger organism with larger eyes, more complex brain, wider knowledge, and greater powers. Upon these forces which tend to economies in production and distribution depend the permanence of syndicates and the chance of avoiding the evil tendency to make profit by raising prices. Great advances of price, except under extraordinary circumstances, are suicidal to an industry. But the inclination to raise prices moderately is more insidious. Hitherto the commercial world has not consciously considered price in relation to cost ; for the price both from maker and to consumer has been ruled as much by the ingenuity and caprice of the middleman as by the cost of production. With syndicates a larger knowledge of cost in the productive department, of prices in the distributive depart- ment, and of foreign cost of production, synthesized in the governing brains, biings finer accuracy in estimation of profit, and creates more steady and moderate prices. The average number of governing minds over a period will be more powerful in con- sideration and more moderate in action than the average individual. Large organiza- tions also afford opportunity of creating and treating large and trustworthy bodies of statistics. One of the chief evils of large organizations is the greater opportunity given for manipulation of the stock on exchange. Syndicates can raise prices only temporarily; for the average of price over some period is dependent upon factors which control syndicates as much as individuals. There are four stages in the evolu- tion of syndicates ; first, complete tentative monopoly ; second, competition, but with some tacit combination of all competitors; third, thorough competition; fourth, a death struggle and survival of the fittest by ultimate ^economy. H. J. FALK, The Economic Journal, December 1896. F.
Proposed Belgian Law Governing Labor Contracts. The law concerns only laborers who are engaged to labor under the direction of a superior. A married woman is allowed to engage her labor without the consent of her husband. The amount and nature of payments shall in all cases be determined by agreement. The workingman is obliged to execute his work at the time, place, and under the conditions determined by agreement or custom ; to work conformably to rules and orders given to him by the head of the company or his representatives ; and to observe good man- ners during the execution of his contract. He is obliged to return in good condition tools and materials belonging to his employer, but shall not be liable for deterioration due to normal wear and tear. The employer must have labor performed under con- ditions determined by contract or custom ; see that it is performed under conditions suitable to security and health ; and maintain decency during the execution of work. He must pay wages in the manner determined by contract or custom. 1 1 o cannot hold tools belonging to workmen. When the engagement is for an indefinite time, it may be ended by either party notifying the other. If the laborer breaks his engagement without previous notice or before the expiration of his contract, for certain causes, his rights and interests are not to be prejudiced. Under other circumstances the party breaking the contract is liable for damages, proportioned to the wages. Revue du Travail, December 1896. F.
Crime and the Census. The number of prisoners per one million population is given by the census as 290 in 1850, 607 in 1860, 853 in 1870, 1169 in 1880, and 1315 in 1890. It is assumed that the number of prisoners at a given epoch is indica- tive of the amount of crime at the same period. In 1880 and 1890 the enumeration included all prisoners, while in 1870 those in houses of correction were not reported. Omitting those in houses of correction in 1880 and 1890, we have, per one million population, 853 in 1870, 1012 in 1880, 1155 in 1890. The return to civil life after the war, and the making <>f three million negroes citizens capable of committing crime, inevitably disturbed social relations. Omitting prisoners in houses of correction and
