860 THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SOCIOLOGY
Examining some of the special phases of the growth more in detail, Dr. Freig finds that the percentage of women in industry is increasing. This is most noticeable in textile manufactures and in the clerk class. On the other hand, the percentage of married women employed in work outside of their homes is falling. So, too, the number of children in relation to the whole number of workers is decreasing with the growth of large industries. Less encouraging is the conclusion that the relative num- ber of apprentices tends to decrease in the large industries. The highest percentage of learners is found in the small industries, particularly those of an artistic type. With regard to the periodicity of industry, the author finds that not less than 10.9 per cent, of all the lines of work are carried on for only a part of the year. Most of them run from six to eight months ; some are open for only three months. The social significance of this fact will be appreciated when it is realized that most of the enforced idleness falls in the winter months. The article closes with some remarks on the localization of industry and some suggestions as to trade policy. DP.. JOHANNES FEIG, " Deutschlands gewerbliche Entwickelung seit dem Jahre 1882," in Zeitschrift fur die gesamte Staatswissenschaft (viertes Heft), 1900. H. B. W.
The Origin of the Cities of Western Europe. On assuming the chair of comparative legislation in the College de France, M. Frantz Funck-Brentano delivered his opening lecture on the conditions of Europe from the seventh to the eleventh cen- tury, in the midst of which the western towns arose. There is much discussion, but little documentary evidence, upon this obscure period. Five theories are offered to explain the origin of the cities: (i) the ancient Roman towns survived the barbarian invasions, with essential structure but slightly altered; (2) the towns grew from points fortified for common defense; (3) they grew up about the sites of the mediaeval fairs ; (4) they developed naturally from rural communities by the growth of trade and industry ; (5) they were established by bodies of merchants who sought a favorable place for trade.
M. Brentano declares that the invasions of the barbarians destroyed all the bonds of Roman civilization in western Europe. The local chieftains harried and plundered each other, and the people fled from the highways and the rivers. But one group was left the family. The bonds of this circle were drawn more tightly as the social stress without increased. The individual was obliged to find refuge in such a group or perish. And so the authority of the head of the family was greatly increased, and a sort of domestic code was established. People who did not belong to such a group by birth sought its protection and entered its numbers according to a fictitious scheme of relationship. From the subordination thus developed the feudal system gradually arose. Such was the social conditions in which the city rose.
In treating of the development of the towns, M. Brentano follows the general scheme of his master, M. Flach. The latter holds that the cities originated in several ways. Some of them grew up about the castle of a local noble. Peasants and mer- chants sought the protection of the lord of the chateau ; and he was glad to profit by their industry. Similarly about the monasteries of the church, groups of artisans and agriculturists sought refuge about the strong walls and under the shadow of the cross. The people gave their services and contributed of their goods in return for protection and the granting of certain privileges. Walled villages also grew into cities when privileges and liberties were granted to the heads of households by the sovereign of the realm. The so-called "new towns" were established for purposes of profit or defense. They arose in three ways : (i)the villes-neuves frontiers of the ninth and tenth centuries were merely fortresses into which all sorts of people were gathered to defend the inhabitants against the Normans and Saracens ; (2) the villes-neuves sau- vetes of the eleventh and twelth centuries were little communities established about the cross of the church, as places of refuge from the sword of the robber nobles ; (3) the villes-neuves bastides of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries were regular towns laid out by the monarch as points of support and sources of revenue. The towns were peopled by the folk who sought refuge from the more stringent exactions of the local nobility. FRANTZ FUNCK-BRENTANO, "La formation des villes dans 1'Europe occi- dentale aux origines de la civilisation moderne," in Reforme iociale, January 16, 1901.
H. B. W.
