the Acanthopterygian affinities of a fish can nearly always be determined. The numbers of the dorsal and anal rays generally correspond to the number of vertebræ in a certain portion of the spine, and are therefore constant specific, generic, or even family characters; but when their number is very great, a proportionally wide margin must be allowed for variation, and the taxinomic value of this character becomes uncertain. The numbers of the pectoral and caudal rays are rarely of any account.
Function of the Fins. The fins are organs of motion; but it is chiefly the tail and the caudal fin by which the fish impels itself forward. To execute energetic locomotion the tail and caudal fin are strongly bent, with rapidity, alternately towards the right and left; whilst a gentle motion forwards is effected by a simply undulating action of the caudal fin, the lobes of which act like the blades of a screw. Retrograde motions can be made by fish in an imperfect manner only, by forward-strokes of the pectoral fins. When the fish wants to turn towards the left, he gives a stroke of the tail towards the right, the right pectoral acting sunultaneously, whilst the left remains adpressed to the body. Thus the pectoral fins assist in the progressive motions of the fish, but rather directing its course than acting as powerful propellers. The chief function of the paired fins is to maintain the balance of the fish in the water, which is always the most unsteady where there is no weight to sink it: when the pectoral of one side, or the pectoral and ventral of the same side are removed, the fish loses its balance and falls on the side opposite; when both pectorals are removed, the fish's head sinks; on removal of the dorsal and anal fins the motion of the fish assumes a zig-zag course. A fish deprived of all fins, as well as a dead fish, floats with the belly upwards, the back being the heavier part of the body.
In numerous groups of fishes which live in mud, or are enabled to pass a longer or shorter time in soil periodi-
