Socialists more hesitating in their attitude, but haunted by noble scruples, and by an imperfect notion of Socialist duties reacted against the absolute betrayals of the majorities. In Germany it was "Opposition inside the Organisation" led by Haase, Ledebour, Kautsky, Hoffman, Bernstein, Louise Zietz, Dittmann, etc. In France it was the "Minority" with Brizon, Raffin Dugens, Lonquet, Pressemane, Mistral, Mayeras, Paul Faure, Verfeuil, Delepine, Maurin, Dunos, etc. These two fractions, whom Socialist logic scared, who did not dare to adopt the principles and the tactics of the out-and-out revolutionaries, who were troubled about preserving "Unity" with traitors, and who consequently condemned themselves to impotence, nevertheless played a useful role through their resistance to chauvinism. The German fraction showed itself more active than did the French, and destroyed the pernicious unity of Social Democracy by forming the Independent Party, appealing from the Reichstag benches to the people, in favour of a popular rising.
These groupings, whose socialist spirit was not completely obscured by the war, used their efforts without any general vision, without co-ordination, in the same way as did the parties or fractions among the Socialists of neutral countries (Switzerland. Holland, Sweden, Norway, Greece. Portugal), who were inspired with similar ideas. International Conferences were necessary. The first one met at Zimmerwald. the 5th September, 1915, a place and date of primary importance henceforth in the history of Socialism.
Zimmerwald, Kienthal, Stockholm, Moscow
The Swiss and Italian Socialist parties multiplied attempts to re-establish contact between international Socialists, and determine a basis of common action against the war. In September, 1914, the conference of Lugano confided to the Swiss party the task of re-establishing relations between the parties which were formerly linked in brotherhood, but who had now become belligerants or neutrals. Similar efforts were attempted by Troelstra. The Socialist Party of America suggested the reunion of a Congress at Washington, undertaking at the same time its
14
