degenerated into an actual auction of the crown to the highest bidder, but also the liberum veto—that is, the right of every single member of the diet to prevent any enactment by his protest.
Ideas of reform—mostly from France—made way slowly in the last half of the eighteenth century, when it was too late. They did not become predominant till after the first partition of Poland in 1772. From that time forth Polish politicians subjected the existing arrangements to a persistent criticism, the political results of which were shown in the celebrated four years' diet, which met a year before the breaking out of the French Revolution. In this diet the strong national party, in constant conflict with the obdurate aristocrats, who were not very numerous, and the venal traitors who were partisans of the Tzarina Catherine, worked incessantly, secretly, and harmoniously at the reform of the constitution. Finally, May 3, 1791, an epoch-making date in Polish intellectual life, the constitution which had been prepared (an excellent work for those days, which, among other things, made the royal power hereditary, established a responsible ministry and abolished the liberum veto) was discussed, adopted, and sworn to by the king and the members of the diet in common in a nine hours' session. A fact like the adoption of this constitution is strong evidence against the alleged unfitness of Poland for self-government.
If the people themselves had dared to decide their fate, they would easily have got the better of that little group of reactionary nobles who, as early as 1792, met in Targowice, at the instance of Russia, to invoke Russia for the protection of their old liberties; but the weak Stanislaus Augustus, as is well known, submitted to the pressure from St. Petersburg, broke his oath, and joined the confederation at Targowice. Thus when the Prussian army, under the pretence of fighting against Jacobinism, but in reality to divide the booty with the Tzarina, invaded the land in 1793, the second partition of Poland was carried out.
Then followed the first great Polish rebellion, under Kosciusko as Dictator. After a three days' fight the Russians
