JAPAN
pendence, there is no difficulty in understanding the temper aroused by the news of the Harris treaty. Indeed, to any student of the literature that circulated among the Japanese immediately prior to the mission of Commodore Perry, the wonder is, not that great difficulties were experienced in concluding a treaty, but that any section of the people could be induced to range themselves on the side of liberalism. The writings of the time were saturated with anti-foreign sentiment. Authors revelled in such expressions as "imperial customs" (Kwōfū), "imperial country" (Kwōkoku), "divine dignity" (Shin-i), "land of the gods" (Shin-shū), and similar terms indicating fanatical pride in the Empire and its institutions. On the other hand, "hideous aliens" (shū-i), "barbarian bandits" (banzoku), "sea monsters" (kaikwai), and many similarly opprobrious epithets were habitually applied to foreigners, until men ceased to rank them among human beings; association with them came to spell national ruin; their sciences were counted black magic, and their religion was deemed a cloak for political intrigue.
Fully cognisant of the difficulties arising out of this national mood, the Shōgun's ministers summoned another meeting of feudatories and sought to win them to the cause of liberalism by arguments similar to those Mr. Townsend Harris had used in his great speech. But the feudatories were in no temper to listen to reason. Their
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