devotee, died a martyr, and this was the end of the family. 'Abd-ar-Raḥmān III did not find so much difficulty in putting down the independent Arab and Berber nobles. Ibn Marwān was reduced in 930, and Toledo, the last stronghold of the revolt, followed suit in 932. Arabs, Spaniards and Berbers all submitted to 'Abd-ar-Raḥmān, who thus achieved his object, the fusion of all the Muslim races in Spain and the formation of a united nation.
In 914 Ordoño II, king of Leon, laid waste the district of Mérida and captured the castle of Alanje. 'Abd-ar-Raḥmān III was eager to punish him. In 918 Ordoño II with his ally Sancho of Navarre made an attack on Nájera and Tudela. Sancho captured Valtierra, but 'Abd-ar-Raḥmān's army under the command of the ḥājib Badr twice defeated the Leonese at Mutonia. In 920 'Abd-ar-Raḥmān took command of the army in person. By a clever move he seized Osma and then took other places. Meanwhile Sancho had retired, but after a junction with Ordoño II attacked 'Abd-ar-Raḥmān, who found himself in a similar position to Charlemagne's rear-guard at Roncesvalles. At Val de Junqueras the Christians suffered a crushing defeat owing to the mistake they made in accepting battle in the plain. 'Abd-ar-Raḥmān returned to Cordova triumphant. But the Christians did not despair. In 923 Ordoño captured Nájera, while Sancho seized Viguera. But in 924 'Abd-ar-Raḥmān replied by marching in triumph as far as Pampeluna. On the death of Ordoño II, which occurred before this campaign, a civil war broke out between his sons, Sancho and Alfonso IV, while Sancho of Navarre was so far humbled that 'Abd-ar-Raḥmān had leisure to stamp out the rebellion in the south. As he had now attained the height of his ambition, he changed his title and henceforth from 16 January 929 he styled himself Caliph, Amīr al-mu'minīn (Commander of the Faithful) and An-Nāṣir lidīn Allāh (Defender of the Faith).
In Africa he now began a more active policy, and the Maghrawa Berbers, after he had driven the Fātimites out of the central part of North Africa (Algiers and Oran), acknowledged his suzerainty. In 931 'Abd-ar-Raḥmān occupied Ceuta, the key to Mauretania.
In the north the civil war left Ramiro II king in the end (932). This warlike monarch marched to the rescue of Toledo, which stood alone in its resistance to the Caliph. He took Madrid on the way, but failed to save Toledo which, as we have already mentioned, surrendered. In 933 he defeated a Muslim army at Osma, but the following year 'Abd-ar-Raḥmān revenged himself by a terrible raid as far as Burgos. Ramiro II formed an alliance with Mahomet ibn Hāshim at-Tujībī, the disaffected governor of Saragossa.
In 937 the Caliph advanced against the allies, capturing some thirty castles. He next turned his arms against Navarre and then against Saragossa, which surrendered. Ibn Hāshim was pardoned owing to his great popularity. Tota (Theuda), the Queen-regent of Navarre, recog-
