Mālikite doctrines. But later the faḳīhs became exceedingly intolerant of all doctrine which they suspected of heterodoxy. Primary education consisted, as in all Muslim countries, of writing and reading from the Koran, to which the Spanish professors added pieces of poetry and epistolary exercises in composition, and the pupils had to learn by heart the elements of Arabic grammar. Writing was taught at the same time as reading, and to learn writing was compulsory on all. Although education was purely a private matter, yet it was so widely diffused that most Spaniards knew how to read and write, a standard which, as Dozy observes, was still unknown in the rest of Europe. Higher education included, according to Ribera, translations, readings from the Koran and the interpretation of the text; jurisprudence, practical instructions for notaries and judges, the law of succession; branches of religious knowledge; politics, scholastic and ascetic theology; Arabic philosophy, grammar and lexicography; literature, including history, poetry, rhymed prose, stories and anecdotes; medicine, philosophy, astronomy, music, studied in an order which it is impossible to determine.
Undoubtedly poetry was the most popular branch of general culture. Among the Arabs even before the advent of Islām every tribe had a poet, who sang the conflicts, the triumphs and defeats of his tribesmen and, according to Goldziher, had some of the characteristics of the prophet or seer. A copious literature in verse has come down to us from that period, which in its treatment of wars, horses and the wilds has always been a model and a source of inspiration. The chiefs who settled in Spain brought their poets in their train; emirs and Caliphs composed verses, while improvisation was common in the streets and roads. Even the women shared the popular taste, and some of the Caliph's wives and slaves shewed remarkable poetic skill. Moreover, the Caliphs had their court poets, to whom they paid high salaries and shewed the utmost consideration. From primitive themes these writers went on to the love poem. Satire and epigram were also much in use.
Besides poetry the Spanish Arabs diligently studied history and geography, but although they cultivated the short story the drama was unknown to them. Although philosophy was distrusted by the vulgar and its followers filled orthodox theologians with alarm, the highest classes were much addicted to its study in private. Some schools of philosophy, indeed, resembled secret societies. It was certainly through this movement that philosophy found its way into Europe; for the Spanish scholars, who travelled in the East, had read the works of the commentators and translators of the Greek philosophers. Thus the Spaniards served as the channel of communication with the rest of Europe and particularly influenced the development of scholastic philosophy.
Astronomy, like philosophy, was viewed with suspicion by the public, and their efforts to prohibit its study were successful. Despite this fact Muslim Spain produced famous astronomers. More freedom was allowed
