burg, 1810); Shbherbatoff, Russische Geschichte von den dltes- ten Zeiten (2 vols., Danzig, 1779); Levesque, Histoire de Russie (5 vols., Paris, 1782); hs Clkrc, Histoire physique, morale, civile, et politique de la Russie ancienne (3 vols., Paris, 1783-84); Mer- KEL, Geschichte des russischen Reichs (3 vols., Leipzig, 1795) ; Le- 8UK, Des progres de la puissance russe depuis son origine jusqu'au commencement du XIX siecle (Paris, 1812) ; Ewers, Geschichte der Russen (Dorpat, 1816); K.^ramsin, Histoire de I'empire russe (11 vols., Paris, 1819-26; 10 vols., Riga, 1820-33; 12 vols., .Ath- ens, 1856-59) ; Wickmann, Chronologische Uebersicht de russi- schen Geschichte von der Geburt Peters des Grossen bis auf die neu- eslen Zeiten (2 vols., Leipzig, 1821-25); de S^gctr, Histoire de la Russie et de Pierre le Grand (Paris, 1829) ; Strahl, Geschichte des russischen Staates (2 vols., Hamburg, 1832-39); Herr.ma.n.n-, Geschichte des russischen Staates (4 vols., Hamburg, 1846-49); Ustrialofp, Die Geschichte .Russlands (2 vols., Stuttgart, 1840- 43); DE Caulaincourt, Das russische Reich (Leipzig, 1854); His- toire pittoresque, dramatique, et caricaturale de la Sainte-Russie (Paris, 1854) ; de Gerebtzoff, Essai sur I'histoire de la civilisa- tion en Russie (Paris, 1858); Kostomaroff, Russische Geschichte in Biographien (Leipzig, 1888); Kleinschmidt, Russlands Ge- schichte und Politik dargestellt in der Geschichte des russischen hohen Adds (Cassel, 1877) ; Rambaud, Histoire de la Russie (Paris, 1884, 1900); Ger. tr. (Berlin, 1886); von Golowin, Die geschichtliche Entwickelung des russischen Volkes (Leipzig, 1887); Bruck.xer, Geschichte Russlands bis zum Ende des XVIII. Jahrhunderls (Gotiia, 1896) ; Kleinschmidt, Drei Jahrhunderte russischer Ge- schichte (Berlin, 1898); Munro, The Rise of the Russian Empire (London, 1899); Morfill, A History of Russia from the Birth of Peter the Great to the Death of Alexander II (London, 1902); Skrine, The Expansion of Russia (Cambridge, 1903); Waliszew- 8KI, Les origines de la Russie moderne (Paris, 1904); Pantenics, Geschichte Russlands von der Entstehung des russischen Reiches bis zur Gegenwarl (Leipzig, 1908); Fr.\hn Ibn-Foszlan's und anderer Araber Berichte uber die Russen alterer Zeit (St. Petersburg, 1823); ScHOLZER, Russiche Annalen in ihrer slavonischen Grundsprache (3 vols., Gottingen, 1802-09); the Chronicle of Nestor has been translated into French also, by Louis Paris (2 vols., Paris, 1834- 35), and by L^ger (Paris, 1884); and into Latin by Miklosich (Vienna, 1860); Schoettgenius, De originibus russicis disserta- tiones (Leipzig, 1731) ; Potocki, Histoire primitive des peuples de la Russie (St. Petersburg, 1802); Lehrbero, Untersuchungen zur Erlduterung der dlteren Geschichte Russlands (St. Petersburg, 1816) ; Ewers, Sludien zur grundlichen Ketintniss der Vorzeit Russ- lands (Dorpat, 1830) ; Schloezer, Les premiers habitants de la Russie (Paris, 1846) ; Krug, Forschungen in der dlteren Geschichte Russlands (2 vols., St. Petersburg, 1848) ; Tho.mson, The Origin of the Russian State (Oxford, 1877) ; Zabielix, Istorija russkoi zhizni s drevnieishikh vremen (History of Russian Life from the Re- motest Times) (Moscow, 1908).
On the Varangians: — Helsingius, De Varegis (Upsala, 1734); Bioerner, Schediasma historico-geographicum de Varegis, heroi- bus scandianis et primis Russue dynastis (Stockholm, 1743); Krahmer, Die Urheimath der Russen in Europa (Moscow, 1862); Gedeongs, Varjagi i Rus (2 vols., St. Petersburg, 1876).
Invasions of the Tatars: — -Ha.mmer-Purostall, Geschichte der goldenen Horde, das ist, der Mongolen in Russland (2 vols., Buda- pest, 1840) ; Exemplarskij, Les grands-princes de la Russie sep- tentrionale durant la periode tatare depuis 1238 jusqu'd 1505 (2 vols., St. Petersburg, 1889), in Russian.
Monographs: — Gonsiorovskij, Boleslav Jurij II, knjaz vsej Maloj Rusi (Boleslaw George \l. Prince of all Little Russia) (St. Petersburg, 1907) ; Nowakowski, De Demetrio I, Magnce Russice duce, Ivani fdio (Berlin, 1839); Piebling, La Russie et iOrient: mariage d'un tzar au Vatican: Ivan III et Sophie PaUologue (Paris, 1891); Oderbornius, Johannis Basilidis Magni Moscovie duds vita (Wittenberg, 1585); Waliszewski, Ivan le Terrible (Paris, 1904); Idem, La crise revolutionnaire (Paris, 1906); La le- gende de la vie et de la mort de Demetrius I'imposteur (.Vmsterdam, 1606; Moscow, 1839); Ciampi, Esame critico dei documenti inediti delta storia di Demetrio di Ivan Vasiljevitch (Florence, 1827) ; M^rim^e, Les faux Dimitrius (Paris, 1853); Lorentz, Der falsche Demetrius (Berlin, 1862); Hirschberg, Dymitr Samoz- waniec (Lemberg, 1898); Pantenius, Der falsche Demetrius (Bielefeld, 1904); Suvorin, O Dimitrii Samozvancie (St. Peters- burg, 1906); Hirschberg, Marina MHiszchowna (Lemberg, 1906); SoKOLOFF, Rossija pod skiptrom doma Romanovykh (Rus- sia under the Sceptre of the House of Romanoff) (.St. Peters- burg, 1891); Bain, The First Romanoffs: a History of Muscovite Civilization and the Rise of Modern Russia under Peter the Great (London, 1905); Waliszewski, Le berceau d'une dynastie: les premiers Romanov (Paris, 1909) ; Berck, Carstvovanie Carja Mikhaila Romanova (The reign of Michael Romanoff) (2 vols., St. Petersburg, 1832); Idem, Carstvovanie Carja Aleksieja Mikhailo- vitch (St. Petersburg, 1830); Galitzin, La Russie du XVII siecle dans ses rapports avec V Europe occidentale (Paris, 1855); Idem, La rebellion de Stenko-Razin contre le grand due de Moscovie (Paris, 1856); Shshebalskij. La regence de la tzarine Sophie (Karlsruhe, 1857); Nestesuranoi (Jean Rousset), Memoires du regne de Pierre le Grand, empereur de Russie (4 vols., Amsterdam, 1725-26); The History of the Life of Peter the Great, Emperor of All Russia (London, 1740) ; de Mauvillon, Histoire de Pierre I"- surnommt le Grand (Amsterdam, 1742); C.\tiforo, Vita de Pietro il Grande imperatore delta Russia (Venice, 1748); Gordon, The History of Peter the Great (2 vols., Aberdeen, 1755); Voltaire, Histoire de Russie sous Pierre le Grand (1759); Claudius, Peter der Grosse (Leipzig, 1805) ; Beromann, Peter der Grosse als Mensch und Re- gent (6 vols., Konigsberg, Riga, Mitau, 1823-29); Pelz, Ge- schichte Peters des Grossen (Leipzig, 1848) ; de Villebois, Memoires secrets pour servir a I'histoire de la cour de Russie sous les rignes
de Pierre le Grand et de Catherine I"-' (Paris, 1853); Ustrjaloff,
Istorija carstvovanija Petra Velikago (History of the reign of
Peter the Great) (3 vols., St. Petersburg, 1858); Golovin, His-
toire de Pierre appele le Grand (Leipzig, 1861); Brcck.ner, Peter
der Grosse (Berlin, 1879) ; Schutler, Peter the Great, Emperor of
Russia (2 vols., London, 1884); Waliszewski, Pierre le Grand,
I'iducation, Ihomme, I'aeuvre (Paris, 1897) ; Tchistjakoff, Is-
torija Vetra Pelikago (History of Peter the Great) (St. Peters-
burg, 1903) ; Knjazhkoff, Otcherki iz istorii Petra Velikago i ego
vremeni (Essays on the History of Peter the Great and on his
Times) (Moscow, 1909); Rousset, Mtmoires du regne de Cath-
erine, impiratrice de toute la Russie (Amsterdam, 1728) ; Mott-
ley. The History of the Life and Reign of the Empress Catharine
(2 vols., London, 1744); Waliszewski, L' Heritage de Pierre le
Grand {1725-1741) (Paris, 1900); Barthold, Anna Johannovna
(Leipzig, 1836) ; de SIau\'illon, Histoire de la vie, du rvgne, et du
ditronement d'lvan III, empereur de Russie (London, 1766);
Bain, The Daughter of Peter the Great (Westminster, 1899);
Waliszewski, La derniere des Romanov, Elizabeth I'" impira-
trice de Russie (Paris, 1902); Molloy, The Russian Court in the
Eighteenth Century (2 vols., London, 1905); Laveaux, Histoire de
Pierre III empereur de Russie (3 vols., Paris, 1799); DE Saldern,
Histoire de la vie de Pierre III, empereur de toutes les Russies
(Frankfort, 1802); Schumacher, Geschichte der Thronensetzung
und des Todes Peter des Dritten (Hamburg, 1858) ; Bain, Peter III,
Emperor of Russia (Westminster, 1902) ; Castera, Vie de Cathe-
rine Ilimperatice de Russie (2 vols., Paris, 1797) ; tr. (3 vols., Lon-
don, 1798); Tooke, The Life of Katherine II, Empress of Russia
(3 vols., London, 1800); Fr. tr. (Paris. 1801); Bruckner, Kathe-
rine die Zweite (Berlin, 1883); Bilbasoff, Istorija Ekateriny vtoroi
(History of Catharine II) (2 vols., St. Petersburg and London,
1890, 1895); Ger. tr. (4 vols., Berlin, 1891-93); Waliszewski, Le
roman d'une imperatrice: Catherine II de Russie (Paris, 1893);
Idem, Autour d'un trdne: Catherine 1 1 de Russie (Paris, 1894); db
Larivi£re, Catherine la Grande d'apris sa correspondance (Paris,
1895); Schilder, Imp. Pavel pervyi (The Emperor Paul I) (St.
Petersburg, 1901); Golovkine, La cour et le regne de Paul I""
(Paris, 1905) ; Morane, Paul I" de Russie (Paris, 1907) ; Rappo-
PORT, The Course of the Romanovs (London, 1907) ; Rabbe, His-
toire d' .Alexandre I"', empereur de toutes les Russies (2 vols., Paris,
1826); ScHNiTZLER, Histoire intime de la Russie sous Alexandre et
Nicholas /<"• (Paris, 1847); Joyneville, Life and Times of Alex-
ander I, Emperor of All the Russias (3 vols., London, 1875);
Schilder, Imperator Aleksandr Pervyj ego zhizn i carstvovani
(The Emperor Alexander I, His Life and his Reign) (4 vols., St.,
Petersburg, 1897-98); Schiemann, Kaiser Alexander I und die
Ergebnisse seiner Lebensarbeit (Berlin, 1904) ; Golovine, La Rus-
sie sous Nicholas I"- (Leipzig, 1845) ; Lacroix, Histoire de la vie
et du regne de Nicolas I", empereur de Russie (Paris, 1864) ;
Schilder. Imperator Nikolaj pervyi, ego zhiznicarstvovanie{2vo\s.,
St. Petersburg, 1903); Golovin, Russland unter Alexander II
(Leipzig, 1870) ; Kosma, La Russie et I'eeuvre d' Alexandre II
(Paris, 1882); Joyneville, Life of Alexander II, Emperor of All
the Russias (London, 1883); Tatishsheff, Imp. Alexander II, ego
zhizn i carstvovanie (2 vols., St. Petersburg, 1903) ; Samson, Russ-
land unter Alexander III (Leipzig, 1891); Flourens, Alexandre
III, sa vie, son oeuvre (Paris, 1894) ; Notovitch, V empereur Nico-
las II et la politique russe (Paris, 1895) ; Leudet, Nicolas II intime
(Paris, 1898) ; Prince U., Leben und Thaten Nikolaus II (Berlin,
1910); L<)FFLER, Der russisch-japanische Krieq (Leipzig, 1907);
Trapa.ni, La guerra russo-giapponese (Rome, 1908); Boujac, La
guerre russo-japnnaise (Rome, 1908); Culman.n, Etude sur les
caracteres ginfraux de la guerre en Extreme-Orient (Paris, 1909);
From the literary point of view, the best history of Russia in the
Russian language is the Istorija gosudarstva rossiiskago (12 vols.,
St. Petersburg, 1897) ; from the standpoint of biography the best
is that of Kostomaroff, Russkaja istorija v jizneopisanijakh eja
glavniejshikh diejcUelej(2 vols., St. Petersburg, 1903-07) ; but for the
wealth of its documentation and for the interest of its recital, none
is as good as the Istorija Rossii s drevniejshikh vremen (History of
Russia Since the Remotest Ages) (2nd ed., 29 vols., St. Peters-
burg) ; unfortunately it is brought down only to the end of the
seventeenth century.
The Religion of Russia.—A. The Origin of Russian Christianity.—There are two theories in regard to the early Christianity of Russia; according to one of them, Russia was Catholic from the times when she embraced Christianity until the twelfth century; the other holds that Russia was always Orthodox, i.e., an adherent of the Greek schism, from the time when Christian missionaries first crossed her frontiers. The first of these theories is held by Catholics, whose arguments were condensed and developed by Vizzardelli ("Dissertatio de origine christianae religionis in Russia", Rome, 1826), and, more amply, by Father Verdière, S.J. ("Origines catholiques de l'Église russe jusqu'au XIIe siècle", Paris, 1856). Russian Orthodox writers unanimously reject the conclusions that Verdière demonstrated in the form of theses, which, to us, appear to be without solid foundations. The history of Russian Christianity dates from the ninth century; by which it is not implied that Christianity was entirely unknown to the Russians before that
