by Kant, Hegel, and Schelling. Positivism, Materialism, and Spiritualism have succeeded each other without developing originality. Galitch, professor of philosophy at St. Petersburg (d. 1848), was an atheist; Davidoff (d. 1862) reduced philosophy to psychology alone. The philosophy of Schelling influenced even ecclesiastical writers, as Skvorcoff and the archimandrite Theophanus Avseneff. Orest. Novicki is a convinced partisan of the system of Fichte; he was a professor of the University of Kieff. Hegelianism, however, was the most popular of all, and was at once accepted by the Occidentalists Stankevitch, Granovski, Bielinski, and Ogareff, and by the Slavophiles Kirieevski, Khomjakoff, Samarin, and Aksakoff. Between 1859 and 1873 Professor Gogocki of the ecclesiastical academy of Kieff published his philosophical dictionary. The materialist theories of Moleschott and Buchner were defended by M. Antonovitch and D. Pisareff, and refuted by Yurkevitch, Strakhoff, Kudriavceff, Samarin, and Vladislaveff. Darwinism found defenders in Timiriazeff and Famincyn, and opponents in Troicki, Dokutchaeff, Guseff, Popoff, and Strakhoff. The Positivism of Comte was upheld by de Roberti and Mikhailovski. The most original philosophers of Russia were: Kavelin (1818-85), who dealt more especially with psychological problems, an historian and profound psychologist, to whom Russia owes the establishment of the "Voprosy filosofii i psikhologii", a periodical devoted to philosophy, which is held in very high esteem; Kudriavceff-Platonoff, who excels in religious philosophy, and whose studies in apologetics are admirable for their vigor and power of argument; Vladimir Soloveff, an ardent defender of Catholic principles in Russia, and a spiritual philosopher, the most eminent that Russia has produced. His extensive treatise on ethics, "Opravdanie dobra" (Justification of the Good), is a masterpiece of speculation; Prince Troubetzkoi, a follower of Soloveff; and finally, Nesmieloff, professor of the ecclesiastical academy of Kazan, whose work "The Science of Man" gives to him the first place among the Christian philosophers of Russia at the present time.
Orro, Lehrbuch der russischen Litteratur (Leipzig, 1837); PoLe- vol, Otcherki russkot literatury (Essays on Russian Literature) (2 vols., St. Petersburg, 1839); Neverorr, Blick auf die Ge- schichte der russischen Literatur (Riga, 1840); JoRDAN, Geschichte der russischen Literatur (Leipzig, 1846); SHEviIREFF, Istorija rus- skoa literatury (4 vols., Moscow, 1858-60); Minzuorr, Beitrdge zur Kenntniss der poetischen und wissenschaftlichen Literatur Russ- lands (Berlin, 1854); PETRoFF, Tableau de la littérature russe de- puis ses origines jusqu'’d nos jours (Paris, 1872); HONEGGER, Russische Literatur und Kultur (Leipzig, 1880); W1iskowaToFF, Geschichte der russischen Literatur (Dorpat, 1881); HALLER, Ge- schichte der russischen Literatur (Riga, 1882); SmM1TH, Russisk Lit- eraturhistorie (Copenhagen, 1882); von REINHOLDT, Geschichte der russischen Literatur (Leipzig, 1885); Ma1Korr, Otcherki iz istoris russkoi literatury X VIIi X VIII stoliettta (Essay on the History of the Russian Literature of the seventeenth and eighteenth cen- turics) (St. Petersburg, 1889); WaiszEwsk1, Littérature russe (Paris, 1900); tr. (London, 1900); Wotynskis, Die russische Lit- eratur der Gegenwart (Berlin, 1902); PETRoFF, Russlands Dichter und Schriftsteller (Halle, 1905); BRUCKNER, Geschichte der rus- sischen Literatur (Leipzig, 1905); tr. (London, 1908). The best histories of Russian literature in Russian are those of Pyprn, Istorija russkoi literatury (4 vols., St. Petersburg, 1908-1910); PorFirerFr, Istorija russkoi slovesnosti (4 vols., Kazan, 1898, 1904, 1907); PoLevor (12 vols., St. Petersburg, 1903).
Monographs:—WOoOELFFING, Stricture de statu scientiarum ef artium in imperio russico (Tubingen, 1766); Konic, Literarische Bilder aus Russland (Berlin, 1840); VAKCEL, Quadros da littera- tura, das sciencias e artes na Russia (Funchal, 1868); CouRRIERE, Histoire de la littérature contemporaine en Russie (Pars, 1875); EvstraFiEFF, Novaja russkaja literatura (St. Petersburg, 1877); PaLanpnER, Uebersicht der neueren russischen Literatur (Tavaste- hus, 1880); ZaBEL, Literarische Streifziige durch Russland (Ber- lin, 1885); StRaAKHOFF, Iz istorii literaturnago nihilisma (St. Pe- tersburg, 1890); Bauer, Naturalismus, Nihilismus, Idealismus tn der russischen Dichtung (Berlin, 1890); SkanitcHevsx1s, Istorija novieyshej russkoi literatury (History of Contemporary Russian Literature) (St. Petersburg, 1891); SoLoverr, Otcherki po tstorit russkoi literatury XIX vieka (St. Petersburg, 1902); VENGEROFF, Kritiko-biografitcheskij slovar russkih pisatelej (Critico-Biographi- cal Dictionary of Russian Writers) (7 vols., St. Petersburg, 1889- 1903); Dosryv, Brografii russkih pisatelej (Biographies of the Russian Writers) (St. Petersburg, 1900); Oss1p-Lounrié, La psycho- logte des romanciers russes du X IX siecle (Paris, 1905); Srpovsk1, [storija novos russkoi literatury (History of the New Russian Literature) (St. Petersburg, 1907); SavopniK, Otcherkt po tstoris rus- skoi literatury XIX vieka (Essays on the History of the Russian Literature of the nineteenth century) (Moscow, 1908).
Poxrovsk13, Nikolaj Vasilevitch Gogol (Moscow, 1908); FLacn, Un grand poéte russe: Alerandre Pouchkine (Paris, 1894); Du- CHESNE, Michel Jouriévitch Lermontov; sa vie et ses @uvres (Paris, 1910); Pokrovsxis, Ivan Alexandrovitch Gontcharoff (Moscow, 1907); BrRaNnpES, Dostojewski: ein Essay (Berlin, 1889): Sarz- scuik, Die Weltanschauung Dostojewski's und Tolstoi’s (Leipzig, 1893) ; HorrMann, Eine biographische Studie (Berlin, 1899); Mt L- LER, Dostojewski, Ein Charakterbild (Munich, 1903); Loycres, Un homme de génie; Th.-M. Dostojewski (Lyons, 1904); Poxrov- 8K13, Theodor Mikhailovitch Dostoevskij (Moscow, 1908); Zavit- NEvITCH, Aleksiey Stepanovitch Khomjakoff (2 vols., Kieff, 1902); LOWENTHAL, Anton Schehoff (Moscow, 1906); Pokrovsxis, An- ton Pavlovitch Tchehoff (Moscow, 1907); Ernst, Leo Tolstoi und der slavische Roman (Berlin, 1889); MEREZzHKOvsKIJ, Tolstoi 4 Dostojevskij (St. Petersburg, 1901-02); Ger. tr. (Leipzig, 1903); BERNEKER, Graf Leo Tolstoj (Leipzig, 1901); ZaBEL, L. N. Tol- stot (Leipzig, 1901); Bitovt, Graf. L. Tolstoj v literaturie ¢ is- kusstve (Count L. Tolstoi in literature and in art) (Moscow, 1903); Crossy, Tolstoi and His Message (New York, 1903); BrrJUKOFF, Leo N. Tolstoi: Biographie und Memoiren (Vienna, 1906); LitB- BEN, Leo Tolstoi: der Fiihrer von Jung-Russland (Berlin, 1907); Straus, Graf L. N. Tolstois Leben und Werke (Kempten, 1908); Maupe, The Life of Tolstot (2 vols., London, 1908-10); Persxy, Tolstoi intime (Paris, 1909); Isarerr, Graf N. Tolstoi kak myslitel (Count N. Tolstoi as a thinker) (St. Petersburg, 1911); Gracav, Die russische Literatur und Ivan Turgueniev (Berlin, 1872); Jous- soupoFF, Ivan Tourguéniev et l'esprit de son temps (Paris, 1883); ZABEL, Ivan Tourguéniev (Leipzig, 1884); KUHNEMANN, Tourgue- nev und Tolstoi (Berlin, 1893); Borkovsx1s, Tourgeniev (Berlin, 1903); GutsanR, Ivan S. Turgenev (Jurev, 1907); SPLETTSTOSSER, Mazim Gorki: eine Studie tiber die Ursachen seiner Popularitat (Charlottenburg, 1904); OstwaLp, Mazim Gorki (Berlin, 1904); UstHaL, Mazim Gorki (Berlin, 1904); Merncke, Mazim Gorki, Seine Perstnlichkeit und seine Schriften (Hamburg, 1908); Bara- NoFF, Leonid Andreev, kak khudozhnik i myslitel (Leonidas An- dreeff, as an artist and as a thinker ) (Kieff, 1907); Ressner, L. Andreev i ego socialnaja ide ologija (Leonidas Andreeff and his so- cial ideology) (St. Petersburg, 1909); MartyNoFF anp SNEGI- REFF, Russkaja starina v pamjatnikakh cerkovnago tgrazhdanskago zodtchestva (Russian antiquity in the monuments of civil and religious architecture) (Moscow, 1851-57); Rovinsk1s, Istorija russkikh shkoltkonopisanija do konca X VII C (History of the Rus- sian schools of iconography to the end of the seventeenth century) (St. Petersburg, 1856); Petrorr, Sbornik materialov dlja istoris imp. akademii khudozhestv (Collection of materials for the history of the Imperial Academy of Arts) (St. Petersburg, 1864-66); VIOLLET LE Duc, L’art russe, ses origines, ses éléments constitutifs, son apogée, son avenir (Paris, 1877); HassELBLaTT, /istorischer Ueberblick der Entwickelung des kaiserlich-russischen Akademie der Kinste (St. Petersburg, 1886); PrakHorr, Kiev skie pamjatniki vizanttisko-russkago isskistvea (The Russo-Byzantine monuments of arts at Kieff) (Moscow, 1887); Butaaxkorr, Nashi khudozhniki (Our Artists) (St. Petersburg, 1890); PavLINOFF, Drevnosti jaros- lavskija i rostovskija (The_Antiquities of Yaroslaff and Rostoff) (Moscow, 1892); Ipem, Istorija russkoj arkhitektury (Moscow, 189-4).
Evpoximorr, Russkaja zhivopis v X VITI viekie (Russian Paint- ing in the eighteenth century) (St. Petersburg, 1902); WRaNGEL, Podrobnyi illjustrirovannyi Katalog vystavski russkoi portretnoj zivopisi za 150 lief (Complete and illustrated catalogue of the Ex-
sitions Of Russian portraits from 1700 to 1850) (St. Peters-
urg, 1902); RovinsKis, Obozrienie ikonopisanija v Rossii do konca X VII vieka (Sketch of the painting of icons in Russia to the end of the seventeenth century) (St. Petersburg, 1903); UsrEn- 8K1J, Carskie ikonopiscy v0 XVII v. (The Imperial painters of icons in the seventeenth century) (St. Petersburg, 1906).
Russian Orthodox Church. See Greek Church; Russia.
Rusticus of Narbonne, Saint, either at Marseilles or at Narbonnaise, Gaul; died 26 Oct., 461. According to biographers, Rusticus is the one to whom St. Jerome (about 411) addressed a letter, commending him to imitate the virtues of St. Exuperius of Toulouse and to follow the advice of Procule, then Bishop of Marseilles. When he had completed his education in Gaul, Rusticus went to Rome, where he soon gained a reputation as a public speaker, but he wished to embrace the contemplative life. He wrote to St. Jerome, who advised him to continue his studies. Thus Rusticus entered the monastery of St. Vincent of Lérins. He was ordained at Marseilles, and on 3 Oct., 430 (or 427) was consecrated Bishop of Narbonne. With all his zeal, he could not prevent the progress of the Arian heresy which the Goths were spreading abroad. The siege of Narbonne by the Goths and dissensions among the Catholics so disheartened him that he wrote to St. Leo, renouncing the bishoporic, but St. Leo dissuaded him. He then endeavoured to consolidate the Catholics. In
