SWEDEN
352
SWEDEN
the crown to Duke Albert of Mecklenburg, who was
able, with the aid of German ruling princes, to over-
throw Magnus and Hakon (1364). However, as
Duke Albert was obliged by agreements made before
election to leave unpunished the greatest excesses of
the nobles, while the brutahty of his vassals and mer-
cenaries aroused universal indignation, it was resolved
to elect Margaret Regent of Sweden. In 1375 Mar-
garet had followed her father in the government of the
Kingdom of Denmark, and in 13S7, after the death of
her son Olaf, had been recognized in Norway as the
fully authorized and rightful ruler. Albert was de-
feated by Margaret's army (1389) and was taken
prisoner. For a time his adherents continued the
struggle for supremacy as pirates (the Vitalians) , but
finally, in 1395, Queen Margaret came into possession
of Stockholm. Before tliis event the nobles of all tliree
kingdoms at an assembly held at Calmar, 20 July,
1397, had crowned as king of the united kingdoms a
boy of seven j'ears, Duke Erik of Pomerania, son of
Margaret's niece. At the same time it was settled
how the "Union" was in future to be carried on. On
accoimt of the great difference in interests and char-
acter of the three peoples it is evident that the Union
could never attain real strength. As long as Mar-
garet ruled, which was only for fifteen years, every-
thing went smoothly. A woman of great talents and
mascuHne energy, she personally superintended the en-
tire government, saw to the prompt administration of
justice, and sought to increase the power of the Crown
at the expense of the nobihty; her one mistake was
that she granted the Danish element too much influ-
ence and thus estranged tlie Swedes. During Mar-
garet's last years Erik began to share in the govern-
ment, and it was owing to him that a long war broke
out with the Counts of Holstein. His attempt to
wring a tax from aU vessels passing the Oresund made
the Hanseatie League his enemy. Only the ability of
his wife, Phihppa, the daughter of an English noble-
man, prevented Copenhagen from falling into the
hands of the enemy. Under Erik's autocratic rule the
internal government grew worse from year to year,
and the growing discontent of the people found vent
in bloody revolts. Under the leadership of Engel-
brechtsson the Daleearlians drove away all the Dan-
ish supervisors and chose a head of their own (until
1435). The nobles alone for the time being held to
the king, but they sought to weaken his power by
means of agreements, and as Erik did not keep these
promises, allegiance to him was declared to be no
longer necessary at the Diet of Arboga (1436) and
Charles Knutsson was elected as administrator or
stadt holder of the kingdom. Although the demo-
cratic Engelbrecht was murdered soon after this, yet
the efforts to reconcile king and people had no lasting
success, and Erik was deposed in 1439. He also lost
the crowns of Norwaj' and Denmark. Denmark
elected Duke Cki-i.stopher of Bavaria king; he was
recognized by Sweden in 1440, and later by Norway.
The chief event of his short reign (1440-48) was a
famine. The condition of the peasants also grew
worse. His efforts, however, to establish a settled
code of law are very creditable to him.
After Christopher's death the Union fell rapidly to pieces, as the Swedes elected Charles Knutsson, who has already been mentioned, as king, and the Danes and Norwegians Cliristian of Oldenburg (1448). In 1457 the latter was able to obtain his election in Swe- den also, but he could not make any headway against King Charles or Sten Sture the Old, the succe.ssor of Charles in the administration of the country. Chris- tian I was foll()we<l in Denmark by his son Hans (1481), who gradually gained recognition in Norway (1483) and Sweden (1497). Wlien, however, he was defeated in a battle with the Dithmarschen, Sw<'(len again abandoned its allegiance to liim (1501) and on the death of Sten Sture the Old in 1503 the Swedes
made Svante Sture the administrator of the country
(1503); after this latter's sudden death in 1512 the
government passed to Sten Sture the Younger. The
son of the late King Hans, Cliristian II, now sought
by arms to force Sweden to re-enter the Union. In
this policy he was supported particularly by Arch-
bishop Gustavus Trolle of Upsala, against whom the
hatred of all the friends of Sture was naturally di-
rected. The Danish troops which landed at Stock-
holm in 1517 were soon defeated and driven back, and
the next year Christian's troops suffered a still se^■ere^
defeat at Brannkyrka. The national Swedish partj'
deposed and imprisoned the dignitaries of the Church
without any regard to canon law, consequently the
pope excommunicated its leaders, plaeed Sweden un-
der an interdict, and commissioned King Christian to
carry out the punishment. Early in 1520 King Chris-
tian sent a large army into Western Gotland, and after
successful skirmishes the Swedes were overwhelm-
ingly defeated at Upsala. Stockholm alone held
out for a time, but when Christian, approached the
city with a strong fleet, it was obliged to surrender.
The conqueror had been recognized by a part of the
council as king before this; he entered the city in state,
was able to obtain homage as hereditary ruler, and
was then crowned. Unfortunately the adherents of
the ITnion were not content with what had been at-
tained; Archbishop Trolle demanded the punishment
of his enemies, and Christian made short work of
these. Bishops Matthias of Stra^ngnjes and Vincent
of Skara, and a large number of nobles, councillors,
and citizens were executed as proclaimed rebels and
heretics, and their property was confiscated. While
on his return to Denmark the king had various persons
executed, hoping in this way to suppress the spirit of
insurrection fore\'er. In this lie was mistaken.
In January of the next year a peasant insurrection broke out in Dalarne, which spread rapidly. Gus- tavus Eriksson (Vasa) became the leader of the in- surgents, who soon numbered 15,000 men. Vasa had lost his father and brother-in-law in the slaughter at Stockholm, and had been taken prisoner at Brccnn- kyrka as the chief standard-bearer, but had made his escape. His strength grew as leader of the rebellion through several fortunate skirmishes, and as he suc- ceeded in winning over the influential Bishop Hans Brask to liis cause, a popular assembly at Vadstena appointed him stadtholder of the kingdom (1521); two years later he was unanimously elected king at Stra>n- gna'S. He gained Stockholm and Calmar during the summer months of 1523, antl Oland and Finland also acknowledged his sovereignty. At the sjinie time his position was by no means a favourable one, for he lacked the money to meet the most necessary ex- penses, while the constant civil wars had largely de- stroyed the sense of order and respect for law. The bishops were powerful and wealthy lords and only par- tially satisfied with the new conditions; neither could much dependence be placed upon the nobility. Gus- tavus, however, was never at a loss for expedients. By means of clever dissinuilation and deceitful prom- ises he was able to make the citizens and peasant.s his adherents. The introduction of Luther's doctrines not only freed him from the tutelage of the bishops, but in particular offered him the po.ssibility of gaining control of the Church lands and treasures. As the nobility also gained large sums by this (^mflscation, community of interest bound them to their princely ruler. Resistance, wher(>\er shown, was crushed mer- cilessly, generally liy foreign mercenaries. Gustavus repaid the loyalty of the Daleearlians, to whom above all he owed his success, liy the execution of their best men. He was an unusually powerful man of coarse instincts; in old age he married for his third wife a very young woman, and had little interest in higher moral aims when they were of no benefit to his prac- tical schemes. For schools he did not care at all, and
