COUNTER-REFORMATION
437
COUNTER-REFORMATION
M\ these sporadic attempts at polyphony culminated,
n the fovrteenth century, in the addition of different
nelodies to the conliis linmin in accordance with wcll-
'ormulated laws of counterpoint which are still valid
it the present day. The aim was the perfect integrity
ind independence of the various melodies in their
Sow, from which, of course, resulted passing disso-
lances, but these were continually solveil into conso-
lances on the accented notes of the measure. During
- he course of the following century contrapuntal skill
•cached unprecedented heights among both the nu- nerous masters of the Netherlands and those of England; but it served its highest purpose r.nd bore ts ripest fruit in the Roman school of the sixteenth
- entury. The poh-phony for four, five, six, eight, or
iiore parts, produced in that century, with its pre- railing consonance and unifying and life-giving prin- ciple, the canhis firmus (generally a Gregorian melody), is. in a sense, an image of the congregation or of the Church itself. We have unity in variety: each voice singing its own melody and still harmonizing with ?very other voice, just as every member of the C'lmrch ispires to the same ideal according to his own natvu-e ind capacity. When monody came into fashion at the end of the sixteenth and the beginning of the seventeenth century, the study and practice of coun- teri>oint was almost entirely neglected, but it received I new and wonderful development at the hands of Handel and Bach. For a time contrapuntal art served masters other than the Church and her liturgy, 3Ut with the reNaved observance of her laws in regard to music, and with the study and revival, diu-ing the past sixty years, of her greatest musical treasures, jounterpoint in accordance with its original principles, las come into its own again and is bearing fruit as it iid of yore.
Ambras, Geschichte der Musik (Leipzig, 1881), III; Riemanv, Udiuibudi der Musikgeschichte (I.eipziK. 1907). II. pt. I; Hal- LF.R. Komposilionstehre (Ratisbon, 1890); Dehm. /.c^re tiom Vonlrapunkl tBerlin, 2883). JOSEPH OtteN'.
Comiter-Reformation, The. — The subject will be considered under the following heads: I. Significance of the terai; 11. I^w ebb of Catholic fortunes; III. St. Ignatius and the Jesuits, pioneers of the new move- iient; IV. The Council of Trent; V. Three great reforming popes; VI. The missions; VII. Progress in European States; VIII. Ecclesiastical literature; [X. Close of the period and retrospect.
I. Significance of the Term. — The term Counler- Reformation denotes the period of Catholic revival 'rora the pontificate of Pope Pius IV in 1560 to the close of the Thirty Years' War, 1G4S. The name, though long in use among Protestant historians, has jnly recently been introduced into Catholic hand- books. The consequence is that it already has a ■neaning and an application, for which a word with a lifferent nuance should perhaps have been chosen. For in the first place the name suggests that the [Catholic movement came after the Protestant; whereas in truth the reform originally began in the i^atholie Church, and Luther was a Catholic Reformer tjefore he became a Protestant. By becoming a Prot- estant Refonner, he did indeed hinder the pro- cess of the (,'atholic reformation, but he did not stop It. It continued to gain headway in the Catholic South until it was strong enough to meet and roll
- )ack the movement from the North. Even if our
Catholic reform had been altogether posterior to the Protestant, we could not admit that our reform move- Tient owed its motive power or its line of action to the latter, in the way that modern reform movements imong Orientals are due to the influence of Euro- Bean thought. For the principles of the Protostant Reformation are to Catholics principles leading to deformation and to the perpetuation of abuses, such js the subservience of (,'hurch to St[ite, or the mar- riage of the clergj', to say nothing of doctrinal error.
Both the continuance and correction of the same abuse
cannot be due to the same movement. Moreover, it
will l)e seen that the Catholic reform was not even
originally due to reaction from Protestantism, in the
way in which inert nations are sometimes spurred by
initial ilefeats to increased energy, which in the end
may even make them victorious. Though this reac-
tion undoubtedly had its effect on certain Catholic
reformers, it had little or no influence on the leaders
or on the best representatives of the movement, as,
for instance, on St. Ignatius, its pioneer, or on St.
Philip Neri and St. Vincent de Paul, exemplars of its
maturity.
Another point to be noticed is that, though w-e assign certain dates for the beginning and end of the period under consideration, there has never been any break in the striving of the Church against the heresies which arose in the sbcteenth century. In this sense the Counter-Reformation began in the time of Luther and is not even yet closed. But while the points of similarity between this period and those which pre- ceded and followed it might be dwelt upon at some length, and must occasionally be called to mind, there is no reason for rejecting the term, or for denying that it corresponds with a real and important historical period. Historical periods, it will be remembered, are never sharjily cut off, during the actual course of events, from what goes before and comes after, as they are described in books; for history in the concrete is always continuous. In this case the limits of the period are to be measured not by reversals of reform- ing policy and methods, but by the increased or de- creased energj' with which such reformation is pur- sued. When there is intense zeal on the part of many for making reforms, then is the "period" of reform. Similarly this "period" ceases when such zeal be- comes rare, or only mediocre in intensity, even though it does really continue here and there in some indi- viduals or classes. It woukl be a. misrepresentation of the heroes of the Counter-Reformation to describe their reforms as having differed from those of the older ojiponents of Protestantism, except in degree, in eamestnes.s, thoroughness, adaptability to altered circumstances, etc. Their predecessors had been clear in the condemnation and punishment of error. They had preached, pleaded, threatened, even fought, but they did not remodel their ways seriously every- where, in small things and in great. They did not insti- tute new and vast schemes of edvtcation, or alter the constitutions of their States. They did not succeed in awakening the enthusiasm of their party, or in encouraging whole classes to make heroic sacrifices, or heroic eff'orts. But there did come a time when there was such heroism on a large scale, when whole classes, as for instance episcopates, new religious orders, and even the laity (as in England during the persecu- tions), were filled with enthusiasm; when martjTs were numerous; when great writers, preachers, and leaders abounded; when education was attended to from the highest motives and with the greatest in- terest; when the old duties of life were discharged with an alertness, a faith, a meaning which were new; when for a time Catholic rulers and whole States rose superior to considerations of self-interest.
The span of time during which this enthusiasm lasted may be justly considered as an historical period, and it is that which we call the period of the Counter-Reformation. It may also be well to note at the outset that this period is the harder to follow, not only beeau.se of its continuity with previous and succeeding periods, but also because it did not com- mence or end at the same time in any two countries, and in each land began, grew strong, and died away, through different causes, in different ways and de- grees, and at different times. Broadly considered, however, the dates assigned above will be shown to be perfectly accurate.
