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interpret the Scriptural term fire metaphorically, as
denoting an incorjjoreal fire; and, secondly, thus far
the Church has not censured their opinion. Some few
of the Fathers also thought of a metaphorical explana-
tion. Nevertheless, Scripture and tradition speak
again and again of the fire of hell, and there is no suffi-
cient reason for taking the term as a mere metaphor.
It is urged: How can a material fire torment demons,
or human souls before the resurrection of the body?
But, if our soul is so joined to the body as to be keenly
sensitive to the pain of fire, why should the omnipo-
tent God be unable to bind even pure spirits to some
material substance in such a manner that they may
suffer a torment more or less similar to the pain of fire
which the soul can feel on earth? This reply indi-
cates, as far as possible, how we may form an idea of
the pain of fire which the demons suffer. Theologians
have elaborated various theories on this subject,
which, however, we do not wish to detail here (cf. the
very minute study by Franz Schmid, " Qua?stiones
seleetse ex theol. dogm.", Paderborn, 1891, q. iii; also
Gutberlet, "Die poena sensus" in "Katholik", II,
1901, 305 sqq., 385 sqq.). — It is quite superfluous to
add that the nature of hell-fire is different from that of
our ordinary fire; for instance, it continues to burn
without the need of a continually renewed supply of
fuel. How we are to form a conception of that fire in
detail remains quite undetermined; we merely know
that it is corporeal. The demons suffer the torment
of fire, even when, by Divine permission, they leave
the confines of hell and roam about on earth. In what
manner tliis happens is uncertain. We may assume
that they remain fettered inseparably to a portion of
that fire. — The pain of sense is the natural consequence
of that inordinate turning to creatures which is in-
volved in every mortal sin. It is meet that whoever
seeks forbidden pleasure should find pain in return.
(Cf. Heuse, "Das Feuer der Hiille" in "Katholik",
II, 1878, 225 sqq., 337 sqq., 486 sqq., 581 sqq.;
"Etudes religieuses", L, 1890, II, 309, report of an
answer of the Pcenitentiaria, 30 April, 1S90; Knaben-
bauer, "In Matth., xxv, 41".)
VII. Accidental P.uns of the Damned. — Ac- cording to theologians the pain of loss and the pain of sense constitute the very essence of hell, the former being by far the most dreadful part of eternal punish- ment. But the damned also suffer various " acci- dental" punishments. (1) Just as the ble-ssed in heaven are free from all pain, so, on the other hand, the damned never experience even the least real pleasure. In hell separation from the blissful influence of Divine love has reached its consummation. (2) The repro- bate must live in the midst of the damned; and their outbursts of hatred or of reproach as they gloat over his sufferings, and their hideous presence, are an ever fresh source of torment. (3) The reunion of soul and body after the Resurrection will be a special punish- ment for the reprobate, although there will be no essential change in the pain of sense which they are already suffering. (See Resurrection.) As to the punishments visited upon the damned for their venial sins, cf. Suarez, "De peccatis", disp. vii, s. 4.
VIII. Characteristics of the P.ains of Hell. — (1) The pains of hell differ in degree according to demerit. This holds true not only of the pain of sense, but also of the pain of loss. A more intense hatred of God, a more vivid consciousness of utter abandonment by Divine goodness, a more restless craving to satisfy the natural desire for beatitude with things external to God, a more acute sense of shame and confusion at the folly of having sought happiness in earthly enjoyment — all this implies as its correla- tive a more complete and more painful separation from God. (2) The pains of hell are essentially im- mutable; there are no temporary intermissions or passing alleviations. A few Fathers and theologians, in particular the poet Prudentius, expressed the
opinion that on stated days God grants the damned a
certain respite, and that besides this the praj'ers of the
faitliful obtain for them other occasional intervals of
rest. The Church has never condemned this opinion
in express terms. But now theologians are justly
unanimous in rejecting it. St. Thomas condemns it
severely (In IV Sent., dist. xlv, Q. xxix, cl. 1). [Cf.
Merkle, "Die Sabbatruhe in der HiJlle " in " Romische
Quartalschrift " (1895), 489 sqq. ; see also Prudentius.]
— However, accidental changes in the pams of hell are
not excluded. Thus it may be that the reprobate is
sometimes more and sometimes less tormented by his
surroundings. • Especially after the last judgment
there will be an accidental increase of punishment; for
then the demons will never again be permitted to
leave the confines of hell, but will be finally impris-
oned for all eternity; and the reprobate souls of men
will he tormented by union with their hideous bodies.
(3) Hell is a state of the greatest and most complete
misfortune, as is evident from all that has been said.
The damned have no joy whatever, and it were better
for them if they had not been born (Matt., .xxvi, 24).
Not long ago Mivart (The Nineteenth Century, Dec,
1892, Febr. and Apr., 1893) advocated the opinion
that the pains of the damned would decrease with
time and that in the end their lot would not be so
extremely sad ; that they woultl finally reach a certain
kind of happiness and would prefer existence to anni-
hilation; and although they would still continue to
suffer a punishment sj-mbolically described as a fire by
Holy Writ, yet they would hate God no longer, and the
most unfortunate among them be happier than many
a pauper in this life. It is quite obvious that all this
is opposed to Scripture and the teaching of the Church.
The articles cited were condemned by the Congrega-
tion of the Index and the Holy Office on 14 and 19
July, 1893 (cf. "CiviltA Cattolica", I, 1893, 672).
Peter Lombard. IV sent., dist. .xliv, xlvi, and his commen- tators: St. Tho-mas, I, Q. l.xiv and Suppl. i-x., 97, and his com- raentatore: Suafiez, De Angelis, N'lII: Patuzzi, De iuturo im- piorum statu (\'erona. 1748-49: Venice, 1764); Passaglia, Dp. wternitate pimarum deque igne inferno (Rome. 1854): Clarke. Eternal Punishment and Infinite Loie in The Month, XLI\' (1882), 1 sqq., 195 sqq., .'^05 sqq. : Rieth, Der moderne Unglaube und die ewigen Strajen in Stinimen aus Maria-Laach, XXXI (1886), 25 sqq., 136 sqq. ; Scheeben-Kupper, Die Mysterien des Christenthums (2nd ed., Freiburg. 189.S). § 97: Tournebize. Opinions du jour sur les peines d^ Outre-tombe (Paris. 1899) ; Jos. Sachs, Die ewige Dauer der Hnllenstrafen (Paderborn, 1900): Billot. De novissimis (Rome, 1902): Pesch. Prteleet. dogm., IX (2nd ed., Freiburg. 1902). 303 sqq.: Hurter, Compendium theol. dogm.. Ill (11th ed., Innsbruck. 190.3), 603 sqq.; Stdfler, Die Heiligkeit Gottes und der eunge Tod (Innsbruck, 1903); Scheebe.nj-.\tzderger, Handbwh der kath. Dogmatik, IV (Freii)urg. 1903). § 409 sqq.; Heixrich-Gdtberlet, Dogmat- ische Theologie, X (.Miinster, 1904). § 613 sqq.; Bautz, Die Hulle (2nd ed.. Mainz. 1905): Stdfler. Die Theorie der freiwilli- gen Verstoektheit und ihr Verhaltnis zur Lehre des hi, Thomas von .Aguin (Innsbruck. 1905): various recent manuals of dogmatic theologv- (PoHLE. Specht, etc.); Hewit, Ignis J^temus in The Cath. World, LXVII (1893). 1426: Bridoett in Dub. Review, CXX (1897). 56-69; Porter, Eternal Punishment in The Month, July, 1878, p. 338.
Joseph Hontheim.
Hell (Holl), Maximilian, astronomer, b. at Schem- nitz in Hungary, 15 May. 1720; d. at Vienna, 14 April, 1792. He entered the Society of Jesus at Trentschin, 18 Oct., 1738, and after his novitiate was sent to Vienna, where he made his philosophical studies. From his early years he had shown a strong inclination for scientific pursuits, and in 1744 he devoted himself to the study of mathematics and astronomy, acting at the same time as assistant to Father Joseph Franz, the director of the observatory at Vienna. After teaching with much success for a year at Leutschau, he re- turned to Vienna to study theology, and in 1751 was ordained priest. He received a professorshio of mathematics at IClausenburg in 1752 and remained there until 1755, when he was appointed director of the Imperial observatory at Vienna.
Father Hell's most important work was perhaps the annual publication of the " Ephemerides astronomicae
