HUMANISM
541
HUMANISM
for the antique were his chief characteristics. The
satirist Crotus Rubianus, Euricius Cordus, the witty
epigrammatist, and the elegant poet and merry com-
panion, Eobanus Hessus, belonged also to the Erfurt
circle.
In Leipzig also, the first traces of humanistic activ- ity date back to the middle of the fifteenth century. In 1503, when the Westphalian Hermann von dem Busche settled in the city, Humanism had there a notable representation. From 1507 to 1511 .lEsti- campianus also laboured in Leipzig, but in the former year von dem Busche removed to Cologne. From the beginning (1502) Wittenberg was under humanistic influence. Many were the collisions between the champions of the old philosophy and theology and "the poets", who adopted a somewhat arrogant atti- tude. About 1520 all the German universities had been modernized in the humanistic sense; attendance at the lectures on poetry and oratory was obligatory, Greek chairs were founded, and the scholastic com- mentaries on Aristotle were replaced by new transla- tions. The most influential of the humanistic schools were, that of Schlettstadt under the Westphalian Lud- wig Dringenberg (d. 1477), the teacher of WimpUel- ing, that of Deventer under Alexander Hegius (1433- 9S), the teacher of Erasmus of Rottertlam, Hermann von dem Busche, and Murmellius, and that of Miinster, which underwent humanistic reformation in 1500 under the provost Rudolf von Langen (1438-1519), and which under the co-rector, Joannes Murmellius (1480-1517), the author of numerous and widely- adopted textbooks, attracted pupils from such dis- tant parts as Pomerania and Silesia. Good academic institutions also existed in Nuremberg, Augsburg, Strasburg, Basle, etc.
The humanistic movement reached its zenith dur- ing the first two decades of the sixteenth century in Reuchlin, Erasmus, and Hutten. Johann Reuchlin (1455-1522), the "phoenbc of Germany", was skilled in all the branches of knowledge that were then cultivated. Primarily a jurist, an expert in Greek, a first-rate authority on Roman authors, an historian, and a poet, he nevertheless attained his chief renown through his philosophical and Hebrew works — espe- cially through his "Rudimenta Hebraica" (grammar and lexicon) — in the composition of which he secured the assistance of Jewish scholars. His model was Pico della Mirandola, the " wise count, the most learned of our age". He studied the esoteric doc- trine of the Cabbala, but lost himself in the maze of its abstruse problems, and, after having become, in academic retirement, the pride and glory of his na- tion, was suddenly forced by a peculiar incident into European notoriety. This occurrence has been not unjustly termed the culminating point of Humanism. Johann Pfefferkorn, a baptized Jew, had declared the Talmud a deliberate insult to Christianity, and had procured from the emperor a mandate suppressing Hebrew works. Asked for his opinion, Reuchlin on scientific and legal grounds expressed his personal disapprobation of this action. Enraged at this oppo- sition, Pfefferkorn, in his "Handspiegel", attacked Reuchlin, in reply to which the latter composed the "Augenspiegel". The theologians of Cologne, par- ticularly Hochstraten, declared against Reuchlin, who then appealed to Rome. The Bishop of Speier, en- trusted with the .settlement of the strife, declared him- self in favour of Reuchlin. Hochstraten, however, now proceeded to Rome; in 1516 a papal mandate postponing the case was issued, but finally in 1520, under the pressure of the Lutheran movement, Reuch- lin was condemned to preserve silence on the matter in future and to pay full costs.
But more important than the lawsuit was the liter- ary warfare that accompanied it. This strife was a prelude to the Reformation. All Germany was di- vided into two camps. The Reuchlinists, the " foster-
ers of the arts and of the study of humanity", the
"bright, renowned men" {clari viri), whose approving
letters (Epistolai clarorum virorum) Reuchlin had
published m 1514, predominated in numbers antl in-
tellect; the Cologne party, styled by their opponents
"the obscurantists" {viri ohscuri), were more intent
on defence than attack. The most important docu-
ment of this literary feud is the classical satire of the
Humanists, "The Letters of the Obscurantists"
(Epistolee obscurorum virorum, 1515-17), of which
the first part was composed by Crotus Rubianus,
the second substantially by Hutten. Ostensibly these
letters were written by various partisans of the Co-
logne University to Ortwin Gratius, their poet and
master, and were couched in barbarous Latin. They
purport to describe the life and doings of the obscur-
antists, their opinions and doubts, their debaucheries
and love affairs. The lack of culture, the obsolete
methods of instruction and study, the perverse ex-
penditure of ingenuity, the pedantry of the obscurant-
ists, are mercilessly ridiculed. Although the pamphlet
was dictated by hatred and was full of reckless ex-
aggeration, an inimitable originality and power of
caricature secured its success. The Humanists re-
garded the dispute as decided, and sang the " Triumph
of Reuchlin". The latter, however, ever remained a
true supporter of the Church and the pope.
Desiderius Erasmus of Rotterdam (1467-1536) was termed the "second eye of Germany". Vivacious, acute, and witty, he was the leader and literary oracle of the century, while his name, according to the tes- timony of a contemporary, had passed into proverb: " Whatever is ingenious, scholarly, and wisely written, is termed erasmic, that is, unerring and perfect." His extraordinarily fruitful and versatile literary activity as profound Latinist and incomparable revivalist of Greek, as critic and commentator, as educator, satirist, theologian, and Biblical exegete, it is impossible to dwell upon here (see Erasmus, Desiderius). Ulrich von Hutten (1488-1523), a Franconian knight, and enthusiastic champion of the liberal sciences, was still better known as politician and agitator. The strengthening of the emperor's power and war against Rome were the chief items of his political programme, which he preached first in Latin and subsequently in German dialogues, poems, and pamphlets. The ju- rists and tlie Roman Law, the immorality and illiteracy of the clergy, the fatuity of unpractical pedantry, were mercilessly scourged by him, his aim being of course to make himself conspicuous. Finally, he enlisted in the service of Luther and celebrated him in his last writ- ings as a " hero of the Word ", a prophet and a priest, though Luther always maintained towards him an attitude of reserve. Hutten's death may be regarded as the end of German Humanism properly speaking. A still more serious movement, the Reformation, took its place. The majority of the Humanists set them- selves in opposition to the new movement, though it cannot be denied that they, especially the younger gen- eration under the leadership of Erasmus and Mutianus Rufus, had in many ways paved the way for it.
The progress of Humanism in other lantls may be reviewed more briefly. In France the University of Paris exerted a powerful influence. By the end of the fourteenth century the students of this institution were already conversant with the ancient authors. Nicolas de CK-manges (1360-1434) lectured on Cicer- onian rhetoric, but the earliest real Humanist in France was Jean de Montreuil (d. 1418). In 1455 Gregorio of Citta di Castello, who had resided in Greece, was installed in the university to lecture on Greek and rhetoric. Suljsequently, there came from Italy scholars and poets — e. g. Andreas Joannes Las- caris, Julius Ca-sar Scaliger, and Andreas Alciati — who made France the docile daughter of Italy. Among the leading scholars in France may be mentioned Bud6 (Budffius), the first Hellenist of his age (1467-
