der III) was founded in opposition toPsvia, which per~ Emperor Wencesl&us the title of duke. He Rtve hk
sistently sided with the emperor. FinaJlj^in 1176 at dauKhter, ValeDtina, in marriaKe to Louis I, Duke of.
Lc^aiio,thcMi]anesea5siatedby theBrescianB,Nav&- Orl&DS, brother of Charles VI of France, and as a
rase, Verccllese, and Piacentians, defeated the imperial dowry he gave her the cities of Aati and Cherasco,
troops; andFrcderickwasgladtomakepeacewiththe which later formed the basis of the pretensionB of
pope and the Lombards. At Venice a truce of six France to ri^ts over the country around Milan. At
years was concluded, and confirmed by the Treaty of the death of Filippo-Maria in 1447 without heirs other
Constance (1183), which recogniied the franchises of than a daughter, married to Sforca, a condottiere of
the communes, their right to free elettion of consuls, mercenary troops, of whom there were many in Italy,
to administer justice acconling to their own laws, and Sforza succeeded him in 1450 and thus began a new
to assess taxes, so that they came to be a*! it were Tas- d^asty that lasted nearly a century. About tiis
sal states, which recognized the supreme overlordship time France began to aaaert its claims- Louis XII
of the emperor. Once the struggle for freedom was and Francis I occupied the duchy, driving out Lud-
over, the communes beftan once more their unfortu- ovico il More and Maximilian lus eon. Emperor
nale rivalries, and they found only too ready an occa- Charles V drore back France at the battle of Favia,
don in the endless struggles between Guclnhs and and restored Milan to the Sforzas, but only for a short
Ghibcllines. Milan, Brescia, and nearly all the com- time, as Francis, the last son of Ludovico, died with-
mimes in which the burghers held control, were on the out issue in 1535. Then the duchy became a fief of
Quelph side; those wherein the nobles and the classes Spain, and as such it remained till 1706 when it passed
privileged by the emperors had the upper hand, like to Austria, which took possession of it durinz the War
Fbvia and 'Cremona, declared tor the Ghiliellincs. of Succession, at the death of Charles IL A few
From these civil dissensions u few changes in the con- years later 1 he death of Emperor Charles VI of Austria
Btitution of the communes arose, the principal one be- reopened the War of Succession, and Milan fell into
ing the creation of the podesla, or chief magistrate, the hands of the Spaniards (1745); at the peace of
necessitated by the urgency of putting an end to the 1748 it was K'ven back to Austria, which held it until
dispute arising from the political and judicial powers the outbreak of the French Revolution, when Boaa-
exercised by the consuls. parte eataljlished there the Cisalpine Republic and
The podesta was elected by the general assembly of later the Kingdom of Italy. At the fall oJ Napoleon
the people, and had to be a foreiEucr, that i3,.a citizen it went back to Austria and together with the terri-
from some other commune; he belonged to the same tory of the Venetian Republic it made up what was
politicalcolourandha<l to be of knightly family. He known as the Lombardo- Venetian Kingdom- The
sat in judgment in all criminal cases, saw that sen- warsof Piedmont, allied with France in 1^9 and with
tences were carried out, commanded the arm j;, and Prussiain 1866, tookawayLombardyaadVenicefrom
declared war or peace. Hence arose the prominence Au-itria, and helped to make the present Kingdom of
of certain families, especially when the same citizen Italy.
was chosen by more llian one town, and this led to The eulisb historiau of lombaidy ia Padli
dictatorships which gave rise to the sigrwriaB, to be SSii?Jd"'"hl?^nM' ot °W^ DHid^t*'" Wfa 'sVi^
found in the towns of Lombardy and elsewhere. The Langobardoram is nn importftnt authority for the traditioB*,
leacue of the communes was a thorn for the empire cuslome, and poUtieal hisloiy of hia wople to the aid of ibn
andinmOFredcricklltriedoncemoretobreakitand gSSSi^E^riit. 'iWsj- ^ il^iw'cijadiri™'i^
to conquer the Guelph republics of Lomliardy. To iar£ (SbpIbs, 1832), t^d haada tb. hliiorin of Leo* HaS-
preventasiault, when Freuerickcameinl225toholda mahi), Cjirrri', Bchhidt. and othen. the valusble wock of
diet at Cremona, the cities of I^mlmrdy formed an- f°^^^/^^%^!;S,^"J^tenAi^'AlnM?;m^^
other league at San Zeno di Mosio in the neighbour- i907); 'loEy", InMil. poUl. Hadm.da]iT<r>cip.hmbarrltt(Pi,na',
hood of \lantiia. The emperor placed the confederate 1907). For the ndatlooi of the Bonan Churth ttiih the Lum-
towns under a ban, anil with the help of a Saracen ^'^^^^^f^'Si^^-J'^J^'S',.'^"^-^^^-^;^^
armv, which he brought from bicily, and of the troops jiffl,^„ d-omUoI. n iThiM.. XXIII. XXIV (Paris. 1903): atao
of the Ghibelline cities, despite the interposition of CaiYHi-Lnoci. Lt Matt cattoliebe ed i Lumbardi ariani in Stud*
Honoriua III and Gregorv IX, he laid waste the coun- A"™. 'V (8'. »"-, O" »■'• J'^t^fS communes aee Dij-
tiy of the League, and in 1247 defeated it at Cortenova. ^^Z>^^ SX^,? i/^ X i.*;™!^ yXfa^i^
But his victory was of small avail. In vain did be be- Univ. Hit. Sludiea (BallimorB, ISei). The medieval cbrooi-
Mcee Brescia; Genoa and Venice rallierfto the League, ^^i'^iS^^^l^^S^?i^S^l'^S'^-^'^f,'Z- '^i
which had its revenge at Parma and elsewhere, until )ii„_ fairia Motm™^. mk the Arrslvo Sb^'umbiirda-
Jrederick died excommunicated in 1250, and the Lorn- FmA) {MIIu. i874.Baq.). ForLombord jin nee M.i.v»iii, t*
hards could draw breath. In the period that follows »i™ ^f^ "'«". ^tj^^^h'^fe '^ ^*™?*Ji*° '^ ih "
we find the more powerful families quartering them- „jdwSjs'n™LJ o^niAont of'the L^i.Sris'Urpm.c. Ut
sclvesin the various cities. The Torriani and the Vis- Ijimbanit m Fnmoi a -i f orii (18»2). and nil oconomi™! his-
contiat Milan; the San Bonifacios and the Scaligers jpfwa of the Middle Ag™, e.g.. CunKiHaHAH. WeMtmCitiliia-
at Verona; the Vitali and the Ruaconi at Como; the """• p.nm «ii«.
Este at Ferrara; the Bonaceoisi at Mantua; the *^*"* ^ *■ Correggeschi at Parma, etc.
Among these the Visconii quickly became the moat LomCnie de Brlanne, Ettennb-Ckahlkb db,
CcrfuTand tor two centuries were lords of Lom- French cardinal and statesman, b. at Paris, 1727; d.
ly. At first Ihey sought to have themselves atSens, 17W. He was of noble lineage, studied at the
appointed imperial vicars whenever the emperors were College d'Harcourt and then at the Sorbonne, where,
formidable or were coming into Italy, as did Henry in spite of certain suggestions of unorthodoxy, he was
VII and Louis the Bavarian; but afterwards they ^ven the doctorate of theolo^. Ordained priest in
cared little for the emperor and acted as though intle- 1752, ho became euccessively \ icar-General of Rouen
pendent lords. Matthew 1, styled the Great, was (1752), Bishop of Condom (1760), and Archbishop of
created lord in perpetuity in 1295, had himself made Toulouse (1762). Forced by the philosophers upon
count in 1311, placed himself at the bead of the Ghi- Louis XVI, who feared his ambition and despised his
bellines and sdded to his dominions Pavia, Bergamo, private life, he was made in 1788 minwire principal
Piaccnia, and Tortona. Seventy years later Gian and Archbishop of Sens, the second richest see in
Galeazzo ruled over the whole of Lombardv including Fiance. As a minister, he was popular with the As-
Farma and Riggio, to which he added Verona and sembly of the Notables, but failed to win the Parle-
Vicenia which he took from the Scaligers, and Bolo- ment over to his financial schemes, and fell after
gna, Siena, and Pisa, and then he purchased from the announcing the convocation of the States General for
