entire State the rocks are monoclinal and dip gently to the W. N. W., at an average rate in the E. and central portions of the State of about 15 feet to the mile, or about double the average slope of surface to the E. In the W. part of the State the strata lie horizontally. The geological formations succeed each other in a regular ascending series, from S. E. to N. W. The outcrops begin with the sub-Carboniferous, in a small triangular tract not exceeding 60 square miles in extent, in the S. E. corner of the State; followed by the Carboniferous, covering the E. quarter of the State; the Permian, or more properly the permo-Carboniferous, in the E. middle covering a belt about 60 miles wide, extending from Marshall county S. to Cowley and Sumner counties; the Triassic, embracing a triangular tract of about seven counties S. of the Arkansas river, with its apex in the great bend of the Arkansas and its base along the S. line of the State from Sumner county to Clark; the Cretaceous, in the W. middle, covering about one-third of the State, from Washington, Republic, Jewell, and Smith counties, on the N. line of the State, S. E. to the Arkansas river and the S. W. corner of the State; and end with the Tertiary, covering about 20 counties in the N. W. quarter of the State, with occasional tracts in the S. W. and S. There is a very small amount of post-Tertiary or recent formation in the valleys, scattered over the middle and W. portions of the State. Glacial drift covers the Permian and Carboniferous in the N. E. corner of the State as far W. and S. as the Big Blue and Kansas rivers.
Minerals.—The minerals of Kansas are lead and zinc, obtainable from the sub-Carboniferous; bituminous coal, petroleum and gas, from the Carboniferous; salt and gypsum from the Permian and Triassic; chalk and lignite from the Cretaceous; lignite and silica in an exceedingly fine state from the Tertiary.
Fossils.—The fossils of the Carboniferous formation are all marine, consisting of foraminifera, sponges, crinoids, brachiopods, and lamellibranchs. They are quite numerous, limestone rocks in some places being solidly full of their shells. The Cretaceous fossils consist of marine and fresh water shells, fishes, saurians, turtles, birds, and impressions of leaves of aerial plants and trees, such as fig, laurel, magnolia, and other trees of sub-tropical climate; poplar, willow, birch, and other trees of colder climate; together with walnut, oak, sycamore, and other trees similar to those of the present day. In the recent formations are found remains of horse, elephant, mastodon, and other mammals of great size.
Mineralogy.—The chief mineral product is petroleum. In 1918 there were produced 45,451,017 barrels of petroleum, valued at $100,546,202. Kansas contains part of the Kansas-Oklahoma oil fields. Other mineral products are lead, zinc and coal. The production of the latter in 1919 was about 5,750,000 short tons. The State is also a large producer of clay products, and these are valued at over $2,000,000 annually. In the production of salt, Kansas ranks fourth among the States. Other mineral products of the State include sulphur, chalk, alum, portland cement, manganese, lime, marble, kaolin, gypsum, ochre, brown hematite, and numerous other ores of iron.
Soil.—The soil is exceptionally rich in those mineral substances necessary to support vegetation, and is consequently very fertile. In the E. it consists of a black sandy loam with a vegetable mold, and in the W. it is of a lighter color, but greater depth. The bottom lands have a soil from 2 to 10 feet in depth, and the hills, from 1 to 3 feet. Only a small portion of the State consists of woodland, the most abundant trees being the ash, cottonwood, oak, elm, walnut, hickory, maple, mulberry, sycamore, box elder, willow, cherry, redbud, and pecan.
Agriculture.— The excellent soil of Kansas makes it one of the foremost agricultural States. The acreage, production and value of the principal crops in 1919 was as follows: corn, 4,475,000 acres, production 69,362,000 bushels, value $97,107,000; oats, 1,574,000 acres, value $32,287,000; wheat, 11,624,000 acres, production 151,001,000 bushels, value $324,652,000; hay, 1,832,000 acres, production 4,507,000 tons, value $71,211,000; potatoes, production 5,168,000 bushels, value $9,819,000; sorghums, 1,040,000 acres, production 17,888,000 bushels, value $26,832,000.
Manufactures.—In 1914 there were 3,136 manufacturing establishments, employing 41,259 wage earners. The capital invested amounted to $163,709,000, the wages paid to $25,970,000, the value of the materials used $261,248,000, and the value of the products $323,234,000. The chief manufacturing establishments are located at Kansas City, Argentine, Topeka, Leavenworth, and Wichita. The principal articles of manufacture include cured and packed meats, flour and grist, railroad cars, dairy products, foundry and machine shop products, masonry, millinery, books, saddlery and
