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adorned with an image of St. Eligius in relief. In the councils as well as at all other meetings of the craft guilds, their religious character was manifested, which may be a proof of their descent from the pious brotherhoods. Every guild possessed, in one of the numerous churches, a chapel or at least an altar of its own, maintained and adorned at the guild's expense. Control was exercised over the members' regular attendance at divine service, and neglect of this duty was severely punished. At religious processions, like that on Corpus Christi Day, all craft guilds displayed extraordinary splendour; the members appeared corporately, in holiday clothes, and armed. The seniors, with badges and maces, marched ahead, followed by the brethren of the guild, in closed ranks, with ensigns spread and swords drawn. This custom of taking part in the Corpus Christi procession is observed by some of the guilds down to the present day; the butchers lay special stress even now on maintaining the old tradition. After every procession, or other solemnity, an entertainment was given to the members at the expense of the guild. There was a great parade of the craft guilds on the occasion of the coronation of a king, or a marriage in the royal family, or the triumphant entry of some victorious general. The guilds, marching in arms, gave quite the appearance of a well-equipped body of troops ready for fight—thus reminding the spectators of the important part they had played in the past in defending the city from enemies. For in those times they were the proper defenders of the town walls, providing the bastions with ammunition and implements of war; they all belonged to the rifle company and practised shooting at the municipal range. The fortified walls of the town had gates, which are mentioned by name in the very oldest book of records: St. Florian's Gate, the Slawkow Gate, St. Stephen's, the Shoemakers', the Vistula, and St. Nicholas', or the Butchers' Gate; at a later time, we also hear of New Gate and Castle Gate. Between the gates and beside them the wall was surmounted by bastions built of brick and provided with loopholes; there were forty-six such towers, of different shapes, some of them very artistic in execution. They