was made, not for man, but for irrational creatures . . . who live with less toil than men . . . and foreknow the future. Wherein is an argument against transmigration and on augury. (21) Of free will, with an explanation of the sayings of Scripture which seem to deny it. (22) What is the dispersion of the rational or human souls indicated under a veil in the building of the Tower, and the confusion of tongues. (23) On Fate, and the reconciliation of divine foreknowledge with human freedom; and how the stars do not determine the affairs of men, but only indicate them. (24) Of matter, that it is not uncreated (ἀγέννητος) or the cause of evil. (25) That the separation to a special work (Rom. i. 1) from foreknowledge does not destroy free will. (26) As to things good and evil. (27) On the phrase, "He hardened Pharaoh's heart."
VIEW OF CHRISTIAN LIFE.—The picture of Christian life in Origen's writings is less complete and vivid than we might expect. It represents a society already sufficiently large, powerful, and wealthy to offer examples of popular vices. Origen contrasts the Christians of his own with those of an earlier time, and pronounces them unworthy to bear the name of "faithful" (Hom. in Jer. iv. 3; cf. in Matt. xvii. 24). Some Christians by birth were unduly proud of their descent (in Matt. xv. § 26). Others retained their devotion to pagan superstitions—astrology, auguries, necromancy (in Josh. v. 6, vii. 4; cf. in. Matt. xiii. § 6) and secular amusements (Hom. in Lev. ix. 9, xi. 1). There were many spiritual "Gibeonites," men who gave liberal offerings to the churches but not their lives (in Josh. x. 1, 3). The attendance at church services was infrequent (in Josh. i. 7; Hom. in Gen. x. 1, 3). The worshippers were inattentive (Hom. in Ex. xiii. 2) and impatient (Hom. in Jud. vi. 1). Commercial dishonesty (in Matt. xv. 13) and hardness (Sel. in Job. p. 341 L) had to be reproved. Such faults call out the preacher's denunciations in all ages. An evil more characteristic of his age is the growing ambition of the clergy. High places in the hierarchy were sought by favour and by gifts (Hom. in Num. xxii. 4; cf. in Matt. xvl. 22; Comm. Ser. §§ 9, 10, 12). Prelates endeavoured to nominate their kinsmen as their successors (ib. xxii. 4); and shrank from boldly rebuking vice lest they should lose the favour of the people (in josh. vii. 6), using the powers of discipline from passion rather than with judgment (in Matt. Comm. Ser. § 14), so that their conduct already caused open scandal (Hom. in Num. ii. 17). They too often forgot humility at their ordination (Hom. in Ezech. ix. 2). They despised the counsel of men of lower rank, "not to speak of that of a layman or a Gentile" (Hom. in Ex. xi. 6). Origen in particular denounces the pride of the leading men in the Christian society, which already exceeded that of Gentile tyrants, especially in the more important cities (in Matt. xvi. 8).
Traces still remained in his time of the miraculous endowments of the apostolic church, which he had himself seen (c. Cels. ii. 8, iii. 24; in Joh. t. xx. 28, ἴχνη καὶ λείμματα; cf. c. Cels. i. 2). Exorcism was habitually practised (Hom. in Jos. xxiv. 1). Demons were expelled, many cures wrought, future events foreseen by Christians through the help of the Spirit (c. Cels. i. 46; cf. i. 25, iii. 36, viii. 58); and he says that the "name of Jesus" was sometimes powerful against demons, even when named by bad men (c. Cell. i. 6; cf. v. 45). But this testimony must be taken in conjunction with the belief in magic which he shared with his contemporaries. He appeals unhesitatingly to the efficacy of incantations with the use of sacred names (c. Cels. i. 22, iv. 33 ff.; cf. in Matt. Comm. Ser. § 110), and otherwise according to secret rules (c. Cels. i. 24; Hom. in Num. xiii. 4; in Jos. xx. fragm. ap. Philoc. c. xii.).
Origen says little of the relations of Christians to other bodies in the state. The interpenetration of common life by paganism necessarily excluded believers from most public ceremonies and from much social intercourse. It also made them ill-disposed towards art, which was devoted to the old religion (c. Cels. iii. 56; de Orat. 17), and had not yet found any place in connexion with Christian worship (c. Cels. vii. 63 ff.). It is remarkable that while Origen was pre-eminently distinguished for his vindication of the claims of reason (ib. i. 13) and of Gentile philosophy, as being the ripest fruit of man's natural powers (cf. Hom. in Gen. xiv. 3; in Ex. xi. 6) and not their corruption (Tertullian), he still very rarely refers to the literature of secular wisdom in his general writings as ancillary to revelation. He even in some cases refers its origin to "the princes of this world" (de Princ. iii. 3, 2); and, in an interesting outline of the course of Gentile education, remarks that it may only accumulate a wealth of sins (Hom. iii. in Ps. xxxvi. 6). But his directions for dealing with unbelievers are marked by the truest courtesy (Hom. in Ex. iv. 9). In spite of his own courageous enthusiasm, he counselled prudence in times of persecution (in Matt. x. 23). Occasions for such self-restraint arose continually. For Origen notices the popular judgment, active from the time of Tertullian to that of Augustine, which referred "wars, famines, and pestilences" to the spread of the faith (in Matt. Comm. Ser. § 39); especially he dwells upon the animosity of the Jews, who "would rather see a criminal acquitted than convicted by the evidence of a Christian" (ib. § 16). Of the extension of Christianity he speaks in general terms, rhetorically rather than exactly. It was not preached among all the Ethiopians, especially "those beyond the river," or among the Chinese. "What," he continues, "shall we say of the Britons or Germans by the Ocean, Dacians, Sarmatians, Scythians, very many of whom have not yet heard the word?" (ib. § 39). But some inhabitants of Britain and Mauritania held the faith (Hom. in Luc. vi.). Christians generally declined public offices, not from lack of loyalty, but feeling that they could serve their country better through their own society (c. Cels. viii. 73, 75).
The church, according to Origen, is the whole body of believers animated by Christ, Who, as the Divine Logos, stirs each member, so that without Him it does nothing (ib. vi. 48). In the widest sense it has existed even from the Creation (in Cant. ii. p. 418 L.). Such a view, which makes the church coextensive
