money, for it was from its composition incapable of taxing the nation. This was to be done by a parliament which the king summoned to meet in November. Writs were addressed to both the archbishops and to the several bishops containing a clause (Pramunientes) commanding the attendance of the clergy of each diocese by their representatives, to the baronage, and to the sheriffs ordering each of them to return two knights elected to serve for his shire, and two citizens or burgesses elected for each city or borough within it. Thus, this parliament of 1295 was an assembly in which the three estates of the realm were perfectly represented, and from that time every assembly to which the name of parliament can properly be applied was constituted on the same model, though the desire of the spiritual estate to tax itself separately in its own assembly, and its neglect to appear in the council of the nation by its proctors, have in fact changed the composition of parliament (Const, Hist, ii. c. xv.; Select Charters p. 472 sq.) Edward received grants from each estate separately, but was not able to prosecute the war with France in person, for his presence and all the money he could get were needed for an expedition against the Scots.
From the time that Ballol received the kingdom Edward had abstained from all direct interference with the aftairs of Scotland. In consequence, however, of the acknowledgment of the feudal superiority of the English king he had a right, and was bound as lord paramount, to entertain and adjudicate upon appeals made to his. court, and, in spite of Baliol's remonstrances, he had asserted and maintained this right in the case of an appeal made by a burgess of Berwick, which lay within the Scottish border, a few months after the settlement of the crown, and Baliol had implicitly allowed the validity of his assertion. Before long an appeal was lodged against Baliol by Macduff, earl of Fife. After some delay he appeared at a parliament held at Westmmster in May 1294, and there seems to have promised an aid for the French war (Hemingburgh, ii. 45). The Scottish nobles were dissatisfied with his conduct, and, anxious to take advantage of the embarrassment of England, opened negotiations with Philip of France. When Edward heard of this he demanded that the border fortresses of Scotland should be placed in his hands until his war with France was concluded. This was refused, and in March 1296 an army led by seven Scottish earls ravaged Cumberland, and made an unsuccessful attack on Carlisle (Chron. Lanercost). Edward was not taken unprepared, for he had already summoned Baliol and the Scottish lords to meet him at Newcastle on 1 March to answer for certain injuries done to his subjects, and had gone thither with a large army. He was joined by the Bishop of Durham with the forces of the north, and on the 28th the English army of five thousand horse and thirty thousand foot entered Scotland, Edward crossing the Tweed near Coldstream, and the bishop near Norham. Berwick was summoned to surrender; Edward's terms were refused; and on the 30th he prepared to assault it. The English ships which were to act with the army attacked too soon, and three of them were burnt by the enemy. Edward led the assault in person, the town was quickly taken, and, as was the custom of war, very many Scots, more it is said than eight thousand, were put to the sword; the garrison of the castle surrendered on terms; and the women of Berwick were also after some days sent off to their own people (Hemingburgh, ii. 99; Knighton, col 2480, puts the number of the slain at 17,400; and Fordun, xi. 54, 55, dwells on the barbarities of the English). While Edward remained at Berwick making new fortifications, a messenger from Baliol brought him the Scottish king's answer to his summons, the renunciation of his fealty and homage. 'Ha! the false fool,' Edward is said to have exclaimed, 'what folly his is! If he will not come to us, we will come to him' (Fordun). He detached part of his army to attack the castle of Dunbar, arrived there himself on 28 April, the day after Surrey had defeated the Scots, and received the surrender of the place. During May Haddington, Roxburgh, Jedburgh, and other towns were surrenaered to him. He was now joined by some Welsh troops, and about this time sent back part of his English army. On 6 June he appeared before Edinburgh; the garrison began to treat on the fifth day, and the castle surrendered on the eighth day of the siege. At Stirling, where the only man left of the garrison was the porter to open the gates of the castle, he was joined by a large body of Irish troops. He kept the festival of St. John the Baptist (24 June) with much state at Perth, creating several knights, and while he was there received messengers from Baliol, who brought him the king's surrender. On 10 July he formally accepted Baliol's surrender of the kingdom at Montrose. He then marched northwards to Aberdeen, Banff, and Elgin, receiving everywhere the submission of the nobles and people, and returned to Berwick on 22 Aug., bringing with him the famous coronation stone from the abbey of Scone, and having achieved the conquest of Scot-
