that no one was willing to remain dependent. House or farm servants could only be obtained among convicts, who, besides being unfit for responsible positions, were too few in number to supply the demand adequately. Through the dispersal of the population as isolated proprietors of large holdings, the subdivision of industry necessary for the welfare and progress of a modern community was rendered impossible, and the colony sank at once into a state of economic barbarism. To remedy this condition of affairs, Wakefield proposed to hinder the immediate conversion of labourers into landed proprietors by abolishing free grants of agricultural land, and requiring in future the payment of a fixed sum per acre. He also proposed a tax on the rental of grants to be employed in conveying labourers to the colony. Emigration was to be carefully regulated, the supply proportioned to the demand, and the number of emigrants of each sex kept equal. The price of new land should be fixed sufficiently low to enable each labourer to become by purchase a landed proprietor in four or five years. He permitted free grants of pasture, for such land could only be used by one who already possessed capital. He also insisted on the absolute necessity of a thorough scientific survey of the territory of the colony.
These views Wakefield first enunciated in a popular form in ‘A Letter from Sydney’ (London, 1829, 12mo), published under the name of Robert Gouger, afterwards colonial secretary in South Australia. It was so graphically written that no one doubted that it was the work of an actual emigrant. His views were restated in more scientific shape in a chapter on the ‘Art of Colonisation’ in his ‘England and America’ (London, 1833, 2 vols. 8vo; New York, 1834, 8vo), a disconnected work, with a vague title, devoted chiefly to considering the phenomena of capital and labour, with disquisitions on other economic subjects. He finally elaborated his theories in 1849 in ‘A View of the Art of Colonization’ (London, 8vo), in which, after long experience, he modified his first conclusions in some secondary details. Much of the widespread influence Wakefield's views attained was due to the steady support of Robert Stephen Rintoul [q. v.], who was always ready to publish in the ‘Spectator’ Wakefield's opinions on any colonial question. Lieutenant-colonel Robert Torrens [q. v.] also, though at first not altogether friendly, afterwards gave him important help.
In 1830 the views broached in the ‘Letter from Sydney’ had their first practical fruits in the foundation of the National Colonization Society. A controversy with (Sir) Robert John Wilmot-Horton [q. v.] and with Torrens caused its temporary dissolution, but it was revived in 1837, and continued to exist at least as late as 1844. In 1831, at the instance of the society, the English government abandoned the system of free grants of land in New South Wales, exacting a payment of five shillings an acre—a sum which Wakefield deemed insufficient—and applying the purchase-money to defray the cost of transporting emigrants.
In 1834, after Wakefield and Torrens, acting for the Colonization Society, had for some time beset the colonial office in vain, a powerful company was formed, under the title of the South Australian Association, with a view to founding a colony on Wakefield's principles. Among its members were Charles Buller (1806–1848) [q. v.], George Grote [q. v.], (Sir) William Molesworth [q. v.], Torrens, and Henry George (afterwards Sir Henry George) Ward [q. v.] Wakefield was not ostensibly connected with the society, though in reality exercising a paramount influence.
The Duke of Wellington became interested, and a bill establishing the colony was passed through parliament before the end of August. The act embodied Wakefield's two chief articles of faith—the sale of land at a fixed price, and the application of the proceeds to an immigration fund. The introduction of convicts was forbidden, and self-government secured when the population should amount to fifty thousand. A landing was effected in July 1836, and a colony formally constituted in December. Although Wakefield had been the moving spirit in the earlier stages of the enterprise, he was not permitted to take a share in the actual direction of the colony. The administration was entrusted to commissioners appointed by the crown, and Wakefield was not included in the nomination.
In 1838, on the appointment of Lord Durham as governor-general of the British colonies in North America after the suspension of the Canadian constitution [see Lambton, John George, first Earl of Durham], Wakefield accompanied him as an unofficial adviser. Durham afterwards bore the strongest testimony to his wisdom, declaring privately that he had never erred except when he rejected Wakefield's advice. Wakefield had a large share in drawing up Durham's famous ‘Report on the Affairs of British North America,’ which proposed to remedy the troubles in Canada by uniting the North American provinces and granting
