criminal had been found guilty of manslaughter only. An attack was made on the gaol by the lawless element outside the hall, but was futile,—the murderer having been removed by the authorities to Columbus. In its efforts to break into the gaol and court-house the mob was confronted by the militia, and bloodshed and loss of life resulted; during the rioting the courthouse was fired by the mob and practically destroyed, and many valuable records were burned. Various important political conventions have met in Cincinnati, including the national Democratic convention of 1856, the national Liberal-Republican convention of 1872, the national Republican convention of 1876, and the national Democratic convention of 1880,—by which, respectively, James Buchanan, Horace Greeley, R. B. Hayes and Winfield Scott Hancock were nominated for the presidency.
See C. T. Greve, Centennial History of Cincinnati and Representative Citizens (Chicago, 1904), the official municipal documents, the Annual Reports of the Cincinnati Chamber of Commerce, &c.
CINCINNATUS[1] LUCIUS QUINCTIUS (b. c. 519 B.C.), one of the heroes of early Rome, a model of old Roman virtue and simplicity. A persistent opponent of the plebeians, he resisted
the proposal of Terentilius Arsa (or Harsa) to draw up a code of written laws applicable equally to patricians and plebeians. He
was in humble circumstances, and lived and worked on his own
small farm. The story that he became impoverished by paying
a fine incurred by his son Caeso is an attempt to explain the needy
position of so distinguished a man. Twice he was called from
the plough to the dictatorship of Rome in 458 and 439. In 458
he defeated the Aequians in a single day, and after entering
Rome in triumph with large spoils returned to his farm. The
story of his success, related five times under five different years,
possibly rests on an historical basis, but the account given in Livy
of the achievements of the Roman army is obviously incredible.
See Livy iii. 26-29; Dion. Halic. x. 23-25; Florus i. 11. For a critical examination of the story see Schwegler, Römische Geschichte, bk. xxviii. 12; Sir G. Cornewall Lewis, Credibility of early Roman History, ch. xii. 40; W. Ihne, History of Rome, i.; E. Pais, Storia di Roma, i. ch. 4 (1898).
CINDERELLA (i.e. little cinder girl), the heroine of an almost universal fairy-tale. Its essential features are (1) the persecuted maiden whose youth and beauty bring upon her the jealousy of her step-mother and sisters, (2) the intervention of a fairy or other supernatural instrument on her behalf, (3) the prince who falls in love with and marries her. In the English version, a translation of Perrault’s Cendrillon, the glass slipper which she drops on the palace stairs is due to a mistranslation of pantoufle en vair (a fur slipper), mistaken for en verre. It has been suggested that the story originated in a nature-myth, Cinderella being the dawn, oppressed by the night-clouds (cruel relatives) and finally rescued by the sun (prince).
See Marian Rolfe Cox, Cinderella; Three Hundred and Forty-five Variants (1893); A. Lang, Perrault’s Popular Tales (1888).
CINEAS, a Thessalian, the chief adviser of Pyrrhus, king of
Epirus. He studied oratory in Athens, and was regarded as the
most eloquent man of his age. He tried to dissuade Pyrrhus
from invading Italy, and after the defeat of the Romans at
Heraclea (280 B.C.) was sent to Rome to discuss terms of peace.
These terms, which are said by Appian (De Rebus Samniticis,
10, 11) to have included the freedom of the Greeks in Italy
and the restoration to the Bruttians, Apulians and Samnites of
all that had been taken from them, were rejected chiefly through
the vehement and patriotic speech of the aged Appius Claudius
Caecus the censor. The withdrawal of Pyrrhus from Italy was
demanded, and Cineas returned to his master with the report
that Rome was a temple and its senate an assembly of kings.
Two years later Cineas was sent to renew negotiations with
Rome on easier terms. The result was a cessation of hostilities,
and Cineas crossed over to Sicily, to prepare the ground for
Pyrrhus’s campaign. Nothing more is heard of him. He is
said to have made an epitome of the Tactica of Aeneas, probably
referred to by Cicero, who speaks of a Cineas as the author of a
treatise De Re Militari.
See Plutarch, Pyrrhus, 11-21; Justin xviii. 2; Eutropius ii. 12; Cicero, Ad Fam. ix. 25.
CINEMATOGRAPH, or Kinematograph (from κίνημα, motion,
and γράφειν, to depict), an apparatus in which a series of views
representing closely successive phases of a moving object are
exhibited in rapid sequence, giving a picture which, owing to
persistence of vision, appears to the observer to be in continuous
motion. It is a development of the zoetrope or “wheel of life,”
described by W. G. Horner about 1833, which consists of a
hollow cylinder turning on a vertical axis and having its surface
pierced with a number of slots. Round the interior is arranged
a series of pictures representing successive stages of such a subject
as a galloping horse, and when the cylinder is rotated an observer
looking through one of the slots sees the horse apparently in
motion. The pictures were at first drawn by hand, but photography
was afterwards applied to their production. E. Muybridge
about 1877 obtained successive pictures of a running
horse by employing a row of cameras, the shutters of which
were opened and closed electrically by the passage of the horse
in front of them, and in 1883 E. J. Marey of Paris established
a studio for investigating the motion of animals by similar
photographic methods.
The modern cinematograph was rendered possible by the invention of the celluloid roll film (employed by Marey in 1890), on which the serial pictures are impressed by instantaneous photography, a long sensitized film being moved across the focal plane of a camera and exposed intermittently. In one apparatus for making the exposures a cam jerks the film across the field once for each picture, the slack being gathered in on a drum at a constant rate. In another four lenses are rotated so as to give four images for each rotation, the film travelling so as to present a new portion in the field as each lens comes in place. Sixteen to fifty pictures may be taken per second. The films are developed on large drums, within which a ruby electric light may be fixed to enable the process to be watched. A positive is made from the negative thus obtained, and is passed through an optical lantern, the images being thus successively projected through an objective lens upon a distant screen. For an hour’s exhibition 50,000 to 165,000 pictures are needed. To regulate the feed in the lantern a hole is punched in the film for each picture. These holes must be extremely accurate in position; when they wear the feed becomes irregular, and the picture dances or vibrates in an unpleasant manner. Another method of exhibiting cinematographic effects is to bind the pictures together in book form by one edge, and then release them from the other in rapid succession by means of the thumb or some mechanical device as the book is bent backwards. In this case the subject is viewed, not by projection, but directly, either with the unaided eye or through a magnifying glass.
Cinematograph films produced by ordinary photographic processes, being in black and white only, fail to reproduce the colouring of the subjects they represent. To some extent this defect has been remedied by painting them by hand, but this method is too expensive for general adoption, and moreover does not yield very satisfactory results. Attempts to adapt three-colour photography, by using simultaneously three films, each with a source of light of appropriate colour, and combining the three images on the screen, have to overcome great difficulties in regard to maintenance of register, because very minute errors of adjustment between the pictures on the films are magnified to an intolerable extent by projection. In a process devised by G. A. Smith, the results of which were exhibited at the Society of Arts, London, in December 1908, the number of colour records was reduced to two. The films were specially treated to increase their sensitiveness to red. The photographs were taken through two colour filters alternately interposed in front of the film; both admitted white and yellow, but one, of red, was in addition specially concerned with the orange and red of the subject, and the other, of blue-green, with the green, blue-green, blue and violet. The camera was arranged to take not less than 16 pictures a second through each filter, or 32 a second in all. The positive transparency made from the negative thus obtained
- ↑ I.e. the “curly-haired.”
