In passing, it may be pointed out that for a period of four years, from 1871 to 1874, the price of wheat averaged 56s. per quarter (or 7s. per bushel), with the charge for ocean carriage at 6s. 5d. per quarter, whereas in 1901 wheat was sold in England at 28s. (or 3s. 6d. per bushel), and the charge for ocean carriage was 3s. 6d. per quarter; the ocean transport companies carried eight bushels of wheat across the seas in 1901 for the value of one bushel, or exactly at the same ratio as in 1872.
The contrast between the case of railway freight and ocean freight is to be explained by the greater length of the present ocean voyage, which now extends to 10,000 miles in the case of Europe’s importation of white wheat from the Pacific Coast of the United States and Australia, in contrast with the short voyage from the Black Sea or across the English Channel or German Ocean. It is largely due to the overlooking of this phase of the question that an American statistician has fallen into the error of stating that about 16s. per quarter of the fall in the price of wheat, which happened between 1880 and 1894, is attributable to the lessened cost of transport.
Wheat Prices
The following figures show the fluctuations from year to year of English wheat, chiefly according to a record published by Mr T. Smith, Melford, the period covered being from 1656 to 1905:
Price per Quarter
| s. d. | | s. d. | | s. d. | | s. d. | | s. d. | |
| 1656 | 38 2 | 1706 | 23 1 | 1756 | 40 1 | 1806 | 79 1 | 1856 | 69 2 |
| 1657 | 41 5 | 1707 | 25 4 | 1757 | 53 4 | 1807 | 75 4 | 1857 | 56 4 |
| 1658 | 57 9 | 1708 | 36 10 | 1758 | 44 5 | 1808 | 84 4 | 1858 | 44 2 |
| 1659 | 58 8 | 1709 | 69 9 | 1759 | 35 3 | 1809 | 97 4 | 1859 | 43 9 |
| 1660 | 50 2 | 1710 | 69 4 | 1760 | 32 5 | 1810 | 106 5 | 1860 | 53 3 |
| 1661 | 62 2 | 1711 | 48 0 | 1761 | 26 9 | 1811 | 95 3 | 1861 | 55 4 |
| 1662 | 65 9 | 1712 | 41 2 | 1762 | 34 8 | 1812 | 126 6 | 1862 | 55 5 |
| 1663 | 50 8 | 1713 | 45 4 | 1763 | 36 1 | 1813 | 109 9 | 1863 | 44 9 |
| 1664 | 36 0 | 1714 | 44 9 | 1764 | 41 5 | 1814 | 74 4 | 1864 | 40 2 |
| 1665 | 43 10 | 1715 | 38 2 | 1765 | 48 0 | 1815 | 65 7 | 1865 | 41 10 |
| 1666 | 32 0 | 1716 | 42 8 | 1766 | 43 1 | 1816 | 78 6 | 1866 | 49 11 |
| 1667 | 32 0 | 1717 | 40 7 | 1767 | 57 4 | 1817 | 96 11 | 1867 | 64 5 |
| 1668 | 35 6 | 1718 | 34 6 | 1768 | 53 9 | 1818 | 86 3 | 1868 | 63 9 |
| 1669 | 39 5 | 1719 | 31 1 | 1769 | 40 7 | 1819 | 74 6 | 1869 | 48 2 |
| 1670 | 37 0 | 1720 | 32 10 | 1770 | 43 6 | 1820 | 67 10 | 1870 | 46 11 |
| 1671 | 37 4 | 1721 | 33 4 | 1771 | 47 2 | 1821 | 56 1 | 1871 | 56 8 |
| 1672 | 36 5 | 1722 | 32 0 | 1772 | 50 8 | 1822 | 44 7 | 1872 | 57 0 |
| 1673 | 41 5 | 1723 | 30 10 | 1773 | 51 0 | 1823 | 53 4 | 1873 | 58 8 |
| 1674 | 61 0 | 1724 | 32 10 | 1774 | 52 8 | 1824 | 63 11 | 1874 | 55 9 |
| 1675 | 57 5 | 1725 | 43 1 | 1775 | 48 4 | 1825 | 68 6 | 1875 | 45 2 |
| 1676 | 33 9 | 1726 | 40 10 | 1776 | 38 2 | 1826 | 58 8 | 1876 | 46 2 |
| 1677 | 37 4 | 1727 | 37 4 | 1777 | 45 6 | 1827 | 60 6 | 1877 | 56 9 |
| 1678 | 52 5 | 1728 | 48 5 | 1778 | 42 0 | 1828 | 60 5 | 1878 | 46 5 |
| 1679 | 53 4 | 1729 | 41 7 | 1779 | 33 8 | 1829 | 66 3 | 1879 | 43 10 |
| 1680 | 40 0 | 1730 | 32 5 | 1780 | 35 8 | 1830 | 64 3 | 1880 | 44 4 |
| 1681 | 41 5 | 1731 | 29 2 | 1781 | 44 8 | 1831 | 66 4 | 1881 | 45 4 |
| 1682 | 39 1 | 1732 | 23 8 | 1782 | 47 10 | 1832 | 58 8 | 1882 | 45 1 |
| 1683 | 35 6 | 1733 | 25 2 | 1783 | 52 8 | 1833 | 52 11 | 1883 | 41 7 |
| 1684 | 39 1 | 1734 | 34 6 | 1784 | 48 10 | 1834 | 46 2 | 1884 | 35 8 |
| 1685 | 41 5 | 1735 | 38 2 | 1785 | 51 10 | 1835 | 49 4 | 1885 | 32 10 |
| 1686 | 30 2 | 1736 | 35 10 | 1786 | 38 10 | 1836 | 48 6 | 1886 | 31 0 |
| 1687 | 22 4 | 1737 | 33 9 | 1787 | 41 2 | 1837 | 55 0 | 1887 | 32 6 |
| 1688 | 40 10 | 1738 | 31 6 | 1788 | 45 0 | 1838 | 64 7 | 1888 | 31 10 |
| 1689 | 26 8 | 1739 | 34 2 | 1789 | 51 2 | 1839 | 70 8 | 1889 | 29 9 |
| 1690 | 30 9 | 1740 | 45 1 | 1790 | 54 9 | 1840 | 66 4 | 1890 | 31 11 |
| 1691 | 30 2 | 1741 | 41 5 | 1791 | 48 7 | 1841 | 64 4 | 1891 | 37 0 |
| 1692 | 41 5 | 1742 | 30 2 | 1792 | 43 0 | 1842 | 57 3 | 1892 | 30 3 |
| 1693 | 60 1 | 1743 | 22 1 | 1793 | 49 3 | 1843 | 50 1 | 1893 | 26 4 |
| 1694 | 56 10 | 1744 | 22 1 | 1794 | 52 3 | 1844 | 51 3 | 1894 | 22 10 |
| 1695 | 47 1 | 1745 | 24 5 | 1795 | 75 2 | 1845 | 50 10 | 1895 | 23 1 |
| 1696 | 63 1 | 1746 | 34 8 | 1796 | 78 7 | 1846 | 54 8 | 1896 | 26 2 |
| 1697 | 53 4 | 1747 | 30 11 | 1797 | 53 9 | 1847 | 69 9 | 1897 | 30 2 |
| 1698 | 60 9 | 1748 | 32 10 | 1798 | 51 10 | 1848 | 50 6 | 1898 | 34 0 |
| 1699 | 56 10 | 1749 | 32 10 | 1799 | 69 0 | 1849 | 44 3 | 1899 | 25 8 |
| 1700 | 35 6 | 1750 | 28 10 | 1800 | 113 10 | 1850 | 40 3 | 1900 | 26 11 |
| 1701 | 33 5 | 1751 | 34 2 | 1801 | 119 6 | 1851 | 38 6 | 1901 | 26 9 |
| 1702 | 26 2 | 1752 | 37 2 | 1802 | 69 10 | 1852 | 40 9 | 1902 | 28 1 |
| 1703 | 32 0 | 1753 | 39 8 | 1803 | 58 10 | 1853 | 53 3 | 1903 | 26 9 |
| 1704 | 41 4 | 1754 | 30 9 | 1804 | 62 3 | 1854 | 72 5 | 1904 | 28 4 |
| 1705 | 26 8 | 1755 | 30 1 | 1805 | 89 9 | 1855 | 74 8 | 1905 | 29 8 |
| Average 50 years | 42 10 | 36 0 | 51 9 | 65 10 | *42 7 |
* Average for 46 years only.
Thus, whatever the cause of the decline in the price of wheat may be, it cannot be attributed solely to the fall in the rate of rail or ocean freights. Incidental charges are lower than they were in 1870; handling charges, brokers’ commissions and insurance premiums have been in many instances reduced, but all these economies when combined only amount to about 2s. per quarter. Now if we add together all these savings in the rate of rail and ocean freights and incidental expenses, we arrive at an aggregate economy of 8s. per quarter, or not one-third of the actual difference between the average price of wheat in 1872 and 1900. To what the remaining difference was due it is difficult to say with certitude; there are some who argue that the tendency of prices to fall is inherent, and that the constant whittling away of intermediaries’ profits is sufficient explanation, while bi-metallists have maintained that the phenomenon is clearly to be traced to the action of the German government in demonetizing silver in 1872.
GRAM, or Chick-pea, called also Egyptian pea, or Bengal
gram (from Port. grão, formerly gram, Lat. granum, Hindi
Chanā, Bengali Chholā, Ital. cece, Span. garbanzo), the
Cicer arietinum of Linnaeus, so named from the resemblance
of its seed to a ram’s head. It is a member of the natural order
Leguminosae, largely cultivated as a pulse-food in the south of
Europe, Egypt and western Asia as far as India, but is not known
undoubtedly wild. The plant is an annual herb with flexuose
branches, and alternately arranged pinnately compound leaves,
with small, oval, serrated leaflets and small eared stipules. The
flowers are borne singly in the leaf-axils on a stalk about half
the length of the leaf and jointed and bent in the middle; the
corolla is blue-purple. The inflated pod, 1 to 112 in. long, contains
two roundish seeds. It was cultivated by the Greeks in Homer’s
time under the name erebinthos, and is also referred to by
Dioscorides as krios from the resemblance of the pea to the head
of a ram. The Romans called it cicer, from which is derived
the modern names given to it in the south of Europe. Names,
more or less allied to one another, are in vogue among the peoples
of the Caucasus, the Caspian Sea, Armenia and Persia, and there
is a Sanskrit name and several others analogous or different in
modern Indian languages. The plant has been cultivated in
Egypt from the beginning of the Christian era, but there is no
proof that it was known to the ancient Egyptians. Alphonse de
Candolle (Origin of Cultivated Plants, p. 325) suggests that the
plant originally grew wild in the countries to the south of the
Caucasus and to the north of Persia. “The western Aryans
(Pelasgians, Hellenes) perhaps introduced the plant into southern
Europe, where, however, there is some probability that it was
also indigenous. The western Aryans carried it to India.” Gram
is largely cultivated in the East, where the seeds are eaten raw
or cooked in various ways, both in their ripe and unripe condition,
and when roasted and ground subserve the same purposes as
ordinary flour. In Europe the seeds are used as an ingredient
in soups. They contain, in 100 parts without husks, nitrogenous
substances 22.7, fat 3.76, starch 63.18, mineral matters 2.6
parts, with water (Forbes Watson, quoted in Parkes’s Hygiene).
The liquid which exudes from the glandular hairs clothing the
leaves and stems of the plant, more especially during the cold
season when the seeds ripen, contains a notable proportion of
oxalic acid. In Mysore the dew containing it is collected by
means of cloths spread on the plant over night, and is used in
domestic medicine. The steam of water in which the fresh plant
is immersed is in the Deccan resorted to by the Portuguese
for the treatment of dysmenorrhoea. The seed of Phaseolus
Mungo, or green gram (Hind. and Beng. moong), a form of which
plant with black seeds (P. Max of Roxburgh) is termed black
gram, is an important article of diet among the labouring classes
in India. The meal is an excellent substitute for soap, and is
stated by Elliot to be an invariable concomitant of the Hindu
bath. A variety, var. radiatus (P. Roxburghii, W. and Arn.,
or P. radiatus, Roxb.) (vern. urid, māshkalāi), also known as
green gram, is perhaps the most esteemed of the leguminous
plants of India, where the meal of its seed enters into the composition
of the more delicate cakes and dishes. Horse gram,
Dolichos biflorus (vern. kulthi), which supplies in Madras
the place of the chick-pea, affords seed which, when boiled, is
