conception of rights and duties which should be maintained by law, as opposed to those actually maintained; with the further consequence that it may become occasionally a moral duty to rebel against the state in the interest of the state itself, that is, in order better to subserve that end or function which constitutes the raison d’être of the state. The state does not consist in any definite concrete organization formed once for all. It represents a “general will” which is a desire for a common good. Its basis is not a coercive authority imposed upon the citizens from without, but consists in the spiritual recognition, on the part of the citizens, of that which constitutes their true nature. “Will, not force, is the basis of the state.”
Green’s teaching was, directly and indirectly, the most potent philosophical influence in England during the last quarter of the 19th century, while his enthusiasm for a common citizenship, and his personal example in practical municipal life, inspired much of the effort made, in the years succeeding his death, to bring the universities more into touch with the people, and to break down the rigour of class distinctions.
Of his philosophical doctrine proper, the most striking characteristic is Integration, as opposed to Disintegration, both in thought and in reality. “That which is” is a whole, not an aggregate; an organic complex of parts, not a mechanical mass; a “whole” too not material but spiritual, a “world of thought-relations.” On the critical side this teaching is now admittedly valid against the older empiricism, and the cogency of the reasoning by which his constructive theory is supported is generally recognized. Nevertheless, Green’s statement of his conclusions presents important difficulties. Even apart from the impossibility of conceiving a whole of relations which are relations and nothing else (this objection is perhaps largely verbal), no explanation is given of the fact (obvious in experience) that the spiritual entities of which the Universe is composed appear material. Certain elements present themselves in feeling which seem stubbornly to resist any attempt to explain them in terms of thought. While, again, legitimately insisting upon personality as a fundamental constituent in any true theory of reality, the relation between human individualities and the divine Person is left vague and obscure; nor is it easy to see how the existence of several individualities—human or divine—in one cosmos is theoretically possible. It is at the solution of these two questions that philosophy in the immediate future may be expected to work.
Green’s most important treatise—the Prolegomena to Ethics—practically complete in manuscript at his death—was published in the year following, under the editorship of A. C. Bradley (4th ed., 1899). Shortly afterwards R. L. Nettleship’s standard edition of his Works (exclusive of the Prolegomena) appeared in three volumes: vol. i. containing reprints of Green’s criticism of Hume, Spencer, Lewes; vol. ii. Lectures on Kant, on Logic, on the Principles of Political Obligation; vol. iii. Miscellanies, preceded by a full Memoir by the Editor. The Principles of Political Obligation was afterwards published in separate form. A criticism of Neo-Hegelianism will be found in Andrew Seth (Pringle Pattison), Hegelianism and Personality. See also articles in Mind (January and April 1884) by A. J. Balfour and Henry Sidgwick, in the Academy (xxviii. 242 and xxv. 297) by S. Alexander, and in the Philosophical Review (vi., 1897) by S. S. Laurie; W. H. Fairbrother, Philosophy of T. H. Green (London and New York, 1896); D. G. Ritchie, The Principles of State Interference (London, 1891); H. Sidgwick, Lectures on the Philosophy of Kant (London, 1905); J. H. Muirhead, The Service of the State: Four Lectures on the Political Teaching of T. H. Green (1908); A. W. Benn, English Rationalism in the XIXth Century (1906), vol. ii., pp. 401 foll. (W. H. F.; * X.)
GREEN, VALENTINE (1739–1813), British engraver, was
born at Halesowen. He was placed by his father in a solicitor’s
office at Evesham, where he remained for two years; but ultimately
he decided, on his own responsibility, to abandon the
legal profession and became a pupil of a line engraver at Worcester.
In 1765 he migrated to London and began work as a mezzotint
engraver, having taught himself the technicalities of this art, and
quickly rose to a position in absolutely the front rank of British
engravers. He became a member of the Incorporated Society of
Artists in 1767, an associate-engraver of the Royal Academy
in 1775, and for some forty years he followed his profession with
the greatest success. The exclusive right of engraving and
publishing plates from the pictures in the Düsseldorf gallery was
granted him by the duke of Bavaria in 1789, but, after he had
issued more than twenty of these plates, the siege of that city by
the French put an end to this undertaking and caused him
serious financial loss. From this cause, and through the failure
of certain other speculations, he was reduced to poverty; and in
consequence he took the post of keeper of the British Institution
in 1805, and continued in this office for the remainder of his
life. During his career as an engraver he produced some
four hundred plates after portraits by Reynolds, Romney,
and other British artists, after the compositions of Benjamin
West, and after pictures by Van Dyck, Rubens, Murillo, and
other old masters. It is claimed for him that he was one of the
first engravers to show how admirably mezzotint could be applied
to the translation of pictorial compositions as well as portraits,
but at the present time it is to his portraits that most attention
is given by collectors. His engravings are distinguished by
exceptional richness and subtlety of tone, and by very judicious
management of relations of light and shade; and they have,
almost without exception, notable freshness and grace of handling.
See Valentine Green, by Alfred Whitman (London, 1902).
GREEN, WILLIAM HENRY (1825–1900), American Hebrew
scholar, was born in Groveville, near Bordentown, New Jersey,
on the 27th of January 1825. He was descended in the sixth
generation from Jonathan Dickinson, first president of the
College of New Jersey (now Princeton University), and his
ancestors had been closely connected with the Presbyterian
church. He graduated in 1840 from Lafayette College, where he
was tutor in mathematics (1840–1842) and adjunct professor
(1843–1844). In 1846 he graduated from Princeton Theological
Seminary, and was instructor in Hebrew there in 1846–1849. He
was ordained in 1848 and was pastor of the Central Presbyterian
church of Philadelphia in 1849–1851. From August 1851 until
his death, in Princeton, New Jersey, on the 10th of February
1900, he was professor of Biblical and Oriental Literature in
Princeton Theological Seminary. From 1859 the title of his chair
was Oriental and Old Testament Literature. In 1868 he refused
the presidency of Princeton College; as senior professor he was
long acting head of the Theological Seminary. He was a great
Hebrew teacher: his Grammar of the Hebrew Language (1861,
revised 1888) was a distinct improvement in method on Gesenius,
Roediger, Ewald and Nordheimer. All his knowledge of Semitic
languages he used in a “conservative Higher Criticism,” which is
maintained in the following works: The Pentateuch Vindicated
from the Aspersions of Bishop Colenso (1863), Moses and the
Prophets (1883), The Hebrew Feasts in their Relation to Recent
Critical Hypotheses Concerning the Pentateuch (1885), The Unity of
the Book of Genesis (1895), The Higher Criticism of the Pentateuch
(1895), and A General Introduction to the Old Testament, vol. i.
Canon (1898), vol. ii. Text (1899). He was the scholarly leader of
the orthodox wing of the Presbyterian church in America, and was
moderator of the General Assembly of 1891. Green was chairman of the Old Testament committee of the Anglo-American Bible revision committee.
See the articles by John D. Davis in The Biblical World, new series, vol. xv., pp. 406-413 (Chicago, 1900), and The Presbyterian and Reformed Review, vol. xi. pp. 377-396 (Philadelphia, 1900).
GREENAWAY, KATE (1846–1901), English artist and book
illustrator, was the daughter of John Greenaway, a well-known
draughtsman and engraver on wood, and was born in London on
the 17th of March 1846. After a course of study at South
Kensington, at “Heatherley’s” life classes, and at the Slade
School, Kate Greenaway began, in 1868, to exhibit water-colour
drawings at the Dudley Gallery, London. Her more remarkable
early work, however, consisted of Christmas cards, which, by
reason of their quaint beauty of design and charm of draughtsmanship,
enjoyed an extraordinary vogue. Her subjects were,
in the main, young girls, children, flowers, and landscape; and
the air of artless simplicity, freshness, humour, and purity of
these little works so appealed to public and artists alike that the
enthusiastic welcome habitually accorded to them is to be attributed
to something more than love of novelty. In the line she had
struck out Kate Greenaway was encouraged by H. Stacy Marks,
R.A., and she refused to listen to those friends who urged her to
return to a more conventional manner. Thenceforward her
illustrations for children (such as for Little Folks, 1873, et seq.)
attracted much attention. In 1877 her drawings at the Dudley
Gallery were sold for £54, and her Royal Academy picture for
eighteen guineas; and in the same year she began to draw for the
