above the former glacier, while below it the contours are all rounded and typically subdued. A landscape that was formerly completely covered by a moving ice-cap has none but these rounded features of dome-shaped hills and U-shaped valleys that at least bear evidence to the great modifying power that a glacier has upon a landscape.
There is no conflict of opinion with regard to glacial aggradation and the distribution of superglacial, englacial and subglacial material, which during the active existence of a glacier is finally distributed by glacial streams that produce very considerable alluviation. In many regions which were covered by the Pleistocene ice-sheet the work of the glacier was arrested by melting before it was half done. Great deposits of till and boulder clay that lay beneath the glaciers were abandoned in situ, and remain as an unsorted mixture of large boulders, pebbles and mingled fragments, embedded in clay or sand. The lateral, median and terminal moraines were stranded where they sank as the ice disappeared, and together with perched blocks (roches perchées) remain as a permanent record of former conditions which are now found to have existed temporarily in much earlier geological times. In glaciated North America lateral moraines are found that are 500 to 1000 ft. high and in northern Italy 1500 to 2000 ft. high. The surface of the ground in all these places is modified into the characteristic glaciated landscape, and many formerly deep valleys are choked with glacial débris either completely changing the local drainage systems, or compelling the reappearing streams to cut new channels in a superposed drainage system. Kames also and eskers (q.v.) are left under certain conditions, with many puzzling deposits that are clearly due to some features of ice-work not thoroughly understood.
See L. Agassiz, Études sur les glaciers (Neuchâtel, 1840) and Nouvelles Études . . . (Paris, 1847); N. S. Shaler and W. M. Davis, Glaciers (Boston, 1881); A. Penck, Die Begletscherung der deutschen Alpen (Leipzig, 1882); J. Tyndall, The Glaciers of the Alps (London, 1896); T. G. Bonney, Ice-Work, Past and Present (London, 1896); I. C. Russell, Glaciers of North America (Boston, 1897); E. Richter, Neue Ergebnisse und Probleme der Gletscherforschung (Vienna, 1899); F. Forel, Essai sur les variations périodiques des glaciers (Geneva, 1881 and 1900); H. Hess, Die Gletscher (Brunswick, 1904). (E. C. Sp.)
GLACIS, in military engineering (see Fortification and Siegecraft),
an artificial slope of earth in the front of works,
so constructed as to keep an assailant under the fire of the
defenders to the last possible moment. On the natural ground-level,
troops attacking any high work would be sheltered from
its fire when close up to it; the ground therefore is raised to
form a glacis, which is swept by the fire of the parapet. More
generally, the term is used to denote any slope, natural or
artificial, which fulfils the above requirements.
GLADBACH, the name of two towns in Germany distinguished as Bergisch-Gladbach and München-Gladbach.
1. Bergisch-Gladbach is in Rhenish Prussia, 8 m. N.E. of Cologne by rail. Pop. (1905) 13,410. It possesses four large paper mills and among its other industries are paste-board, powder, percussion caps, nets and machinery. Ironstone, peat and lime are found in the vicinity. The town has four Roman Catholic churches and one Protestant. The Stundenthalshöhe, a popular resort, is in the neighbourhood, and near Gladbach is Altenberg, with a remarkably fine church, built for the Cistercian abbey at this place.
2. München-Gladbach, also in Rhenish Prussia, 16 m. W.S.W. of Düsseldorf on the main line of railway to Aix-la-Chapelle. Pop. (1885) 44,230; (1905) 60,714. It is one of the chief manufacturing places in Rhenish Prussia, its principal industries being the spinning and weaving of cotton, the manufacture of silks, velvet, ribbon and damasks, and dyeing and bleaching. There are also tanneries, tobacco manufactories, machine works and foundries. The town possesses a fine park and has statues of the emperor William I. and of Prince Bismarck. There are ten Roman Catholic churches here, among them being the beautiful minster, with a Gothic choir dating from 1250, a nave dating from the beginning of the 13th century and a crypt of the 8th century. The town has two hospitals, several schools, and is the headquarters of important insurance societies. Gladbach existed before the time of Charlemagne, and a Benedictine monastery was founded near it in 793. It was thus called München-Gladbach or Monks’ Gladbach, to distinguish it from another town of the same name. The monastery was suppressed in 1802. It became a town in 1336; weaving was introduced here towards the end of the 18th century, and having belonged for a long time to the duchy of Juliers it came into the possession of Prussia in 1815.
See Strauss, Geschichte der Stadt München-Gladbach (1895); and G. Eckertz, Das Verbrüderungs und Todtenbuch der Abtei Gladbach (1881).
GLADDEN, WASHINGTON (1836–), American Congregational
divine, was born in Pottsgrove, Pennsylvania, on the 11th
of February 1836. He graduated at Williams College in 1859,
preached in churches in Brooklyn, Morrisania (New York City),
North Adams, Massachusetts, and Springfield, Massachusetts,
and in 1882 became pastor of the First Congregational Church
of Columbus, Ohio. He was an editor of the Independent in
1871–1875, and a frequent contributor to it and other periodicals.
He consistently and earnestly urged in pulpit and press the
need of personal, civil and, particularly, social righteousness,
and in 1900–1902 was a member of the city council of Columbus.
Among his many publications, which include sermons, occasional
addresses, &c., are: Plain Thoughts on the Art of Living (1868);
Workingmen and their Employers (1876); The Christian Way
(1877); Things New and Old (1884); Applied Christianity
(1887); Tools and the Man—Property and Industry under the Christian Law (1893); The Church and the Kingdom (1894),
arguing against a confusion and misuse of these two terms;
Seven Puzzling Bible Books (1897); How much is Left of the Old Doctrines (1899); Social Salvation (1901); Witnesses of the Light (1903); the William Belden Noble Lectures (Harvard),
being addresses on Dante, Michelangelo, Fichte, Hugo, Wagner
and Ruskin; The New Idolatry (1905); Christianity and Socialism
(1906), and The Church and Modern Life (1908). In 1909 he
published his Recollections.
GLADIATORS (from Lat. gladius, sword), professional combatants
who fought to the death in Roman public shows. That
this form of spectacle, which is almost peculiar to Rome and
the Roman provinces, was originally borrowed from Etruria
is shown by various indications. On an Etruscan tomb discovered
at Tarquinii there is a representation of gladiatorial
games; the slaves employed to carry off the dead bodies from
the arena wore masks representing the Etruscan Charon; and
we learn from Isidore of Seville (Origines, x.) that the name for
a trainer of gladiators (lanista) is an Etruscan word meaning
butcher or executioner. These gladiatorial games are evidently
a survival of the practice of immolating slaves and prisoners
on the tombs of illustrious chieftains, a practice recorded in
Greek, Roman and Scandinavian legends, and traceable even as
late as the 19th century as the Indian suttee. Even at Rome
they were for a long time confined to funerals, and hence the older
name for gladiators was bustuarii; but in the later days of the
republic their original significance was forgotten, and they
formed as indispensable a part of the public amusements as the
theatre and the circus.
The first gladiators are said, on the authority of Valerius Maximus (ii. 4. 7), to have been exhibited at Rome in the Forum Boarium in 264 B.C. by Marcus and Decimus Brutus at the funeral of their father. On this occasion only three pairs fought, but the taste for these games spread rapidly, and the number of combatants grew apace. In 174 Titus Flamininus celebrated his father’s obsequies by a three-days’ fight, in which 74 gladiators took part. Julius Caesar engaged such extravagant numbers for his aedileship that his political opponents took fright and carried a decree of the senate imposing a certain limit of numbers, but notwithstanding this restriction he was able to exhibit no less than 300 pairs. During the later days of the republic the gladiators were a constant element of danger to the public peace. The more turbulent spirits among the nobility had each his band of gladiators to act as a bodyguard, and the armed troops of Clodius, Milo and Catiline played the same part
