probably to be regarded as a true terminal (tenth) segment of the leg,
while the claws are highly modified bristles. Numerous bristles are
usually present on the thighs, shins and feet of insects, some of them
so delicate as to be termed “hairs,” others so stout and hard that
they are named “spines” or “spurs.” In the relative development
and shape of the various segments of the leg there is almost endless
variety, dependent on the order to which the insect belongs, and
the special function—walking, running, climbing, digging or
swimming—for which the limb is adapted. The walking of insects
has been carefully studied by V. Graber (1877) and J. Demoor (1890),
who find that the legs are usually moved in two sets of three, the first
and third legs of one side moving with the second leg of the other.
One tripod thus affords a firm base of support while the legs of the
other tripod are brought forward to their new positions.
 |
| After Marlatt, Ent. Bull. 3, n. s. (U.S. Dept. Agr.). |
| Fig. 3.—Thorax of Saw-Fly (Pachynematus). |
| I, Dorsal view. II, Ventral view. III, Lateral view. IV, Lateral view with segments separated. |
| Prothorax: a, Episternum. b, Sternum. c, Coxa of fore-leg. d, Pronotum. |
| Mesothorax: e, Prescutum. f, Scutum. g, Scutellum. h, Post-scutellum. i, Mesophragma. j, Epimeron. k, Episternum. l, Coxa of middle leg.
|
| Metathorax: m, Scutum. o, Epimeron. p, Coxa of hind leg. n, First Abdominal Segment. t, Tegula at base of fore-wing.
|
 |
| After Miall and Denny, The Cockroach, Lovell Reeve & Co. |
|
Fig. 4.—Legs and Ventral Thoracic Sclerites of Female Cockroach (Blatta). |
| I, Fore-leg and pro-sternum (S) in front of which are the ventral cervical sclerites (c). cx, Coxa. tr, Trochanter. fe, Thigh. tb, Shin. ta, Tarsal segments. |
| II, Middle leg and mesosternum. |
| III, Hind-leg and metasternum. In IIIa, the episternum (a) and epimeron (b) are slightly separated. |
Wings.—Two pairs of wings are present in the vast majority of insects, borne respectively on the mesothorax and metathorax. At the base of the wing, i.e. its attachment to the trunk, we find a highly complex series of small sclerites adapted for the varied movements necessary for flight. Those of the dragon-flies (Odonata) have been described in detail by R. von Lendenfeld (1881). The long axis of the wings, when at rest, lies parallel to the body axis. In this position the outer margin of the wing is the costa, the inner the dorsum, and the hind-margin the termen. The angle between the costa and termen is the apex. When the wing is spread, its long axis is more or less at a right angle to the body axis. A wing is an outgrowth from the dorsal and pleural regions of the thoracic segment that bears it, and microscopic examination shows it to consist of a double layer of cuticularized skin, the two layers being in contact except where they are thickened and folded to form the firm tubular nervures, which serve as a supporting framework for the wing membrane, enclose air-tubes, and convey blood. These nervures consist of a series of trunks radiating from the wing-base and usually branching as they approach the wing-margins, the branches being often connected by short transverse nervures, so that the wing-area is marked off into a number of “cells” or areolets.
|
| After Quail, Natural Science, vol. xiii., J. M. Dent & Co. |
| Fig. 5.—Wing-Neuration in a Cossid Moth. 2, sub-costal; 3, radial; 4, median; 5, cubital; 6, 7, 8, anal nervures. |
The details of the nervuration vary greatly in the different orders, but J. H. Comstock and J. G. Needham have lately (1898–1899) shown that a common arrangement underlies all, six series of longitudinal or radiating nervures being present in the typical wing (see fig. 5). Along the costa runs a costal nervure. This is followed by a sub-costal which sometimes shows two main branches. Then comes the radial—usually the most important nervure of the wing—typically with five branches, and the median with four. These sets arise from a main trunk towards the front region of the wing-base. From another hinder trunk arise the two-branched cubital nervure and three separate anal nervures. In the hind-wing of many insects the number of radial branches becomes reduced, while the anal area is especially well developed and undergoes a fan-like folding when the wings are closed. Great diversity exists in the texture and functions of fore and hind-wings in different insects; these differences are discussed in the descriptions of the various orders. The wings often afford secondary sexual characters, being not infrequently absent or reduced in the female when well developed in the male (see fig. 6). Rarely the male is the wingless sex.
In addition to the wings there are smaller dorsal outgrowths of the thorax in many insects. Paired erectile plates (patagia) are borne on the prothorax in moths, while in moths, sawflies, wasps, bees and other insects there are small plates (tegulae)—see Fig. 3, t—on the mesothorax at the base of the fore-wings.
Abdomen.—In the abdominal exoskeleton the segmental structure is very clearly marked, a series of sclerites—dorsal terga and abdominal sterna—being connected by pale, feebly chitinized cuticle, so that considerable freedom of movement between the segments is possible. The first and second abdominal sterna are often suppressed or reduced, on account of the strong development of the hind-legs. In many insects ten, and in a few eleven, abdominal segments can be clearly distinguished in addition to a small terminal anal segment. The female genital opening usually lies between the seventh and eighth segments, the male on the ninth. Prominent paired limbs are often borne on the tenth segment, the elongate tail-feelers (cerci) of bristle-tails and may-flies, or the forceps of earwigs, for example. In the Embiidae, a family of Isoptera, it has been shown by G. Enderlein (1901) that these cerci clearly belong to a partially suppressed eleventh segment, and R. Heymons (1895–1896) has proved by embryological study that in all cases they really belong to this eleventh segment, which in the course of development becomes fused with the tenth. Smaller appendages (such as the stylets of male cockroaches) may be carried on the ninth segment. Pairs of processes carried on the eighth and ninth segments often become specialized to form the ovipositor of the female (see fig. 14) and the genital armature of the male. A marked modification of the hinder abdominal segments may be noticed in most insects,
