exerted on Greek thought by Egyptian religion. According to the rationalistic explanation of Herodotus (i. 1) Io was an Argive princess who was carried off to Egypt by the Phoenicians. Epaphus, the son of Io, the supposed founder of Memphis, was identified with Apis. He was said to have been carried off by order of Hera to Byblus in Syria, where he was found again by Io. On returning to Egypt, Io, afterwards identified with Isis, married Telegonus and founded the royal families of Egypt, Phoenicia, Argos and Thebes. The journey to Syria in search of Epaphus was invented to explain the fact that the Phoenician goddess Astarte, who was sometimes represented as horned, was confounded with Io.
Io herself is variously interpreted. She is usually understood to be the moon in the midst of the mighty heaven, studded with stars, represented by Argus. According to others, she is the annual rising of the Nile; the personification of the Ionian race; the mist; the earth. It seems probable that she was a duplicate of Hera (Io βούκερως is Hera βοῶπις), or a deity in primitive times worshipped under the symbol of a cow, whose worship was superseded by that of Hera; the recollection of this early identity would account for Io being regarded as the priestess of the goddess in later times. Amongst the Romans she was sometimes identified with Anna Perenna. The legend of Io spread beyond Argos, especially in Byzantium and Euboea, where it was associated with the town of Argura. It was a favourite subject among Greek painters, and many representations of it are preserved on vases and wall paintings; Io herself appears as a horned maiden or as the heifer watched by Argus.
See R. Engelmann, De Ione (1868), with notes containing references to authorities, and his article in Roscher’s Lexikon der Mythologie; J. Overbeck, De Ione, telluris, non lunae, Dea (1872); P. W. Forchhammer, Die Wanderungen der Inachostochter Io (1881), with map and special reference to Aeschylus’s account of Io’s wanderings; F. Durrbach in Daremberg and Saglio’s Dictionnaire des antiquités; G. Mellén, De Ius fabula (1901); Wernicke s.v. “Argos” in Pauly-Wissowa’s Realencyclopädie, ii. pt. i. (1896); J. E. Harrison in Classical Review (1893, p. 76); Bacchylides xviii. (xix.), with Jebb’s notes.
IODINE (symbol I, atomic weight 126.92), a chemical element,
belonging to the halogen group. Its name is derived from Gr.
ἰοειδής (violet-coloured), in allusion to the colour of its vapour.
It was discovered in 1812 by B. Courtois when investigating
the products obtained from the mother-liquors prepared by
lixiviating kelp or burnt seaweed, and in 1815 L. J. Gay-Lussac
showed that it was an element. Iodine does not occur in nature
in the uncombined condition, but is found very widely but
sparingly distributed in the form of iodides and iodates, chiefly
of sodium and potassium. It is also found in small quantities
in sea-water, in some seaweeds, and in various mineral and
medicinal springs. Deep-sea weeds as a rule contain more iodine
than those which are found in the shallow waters.
Iodine is obtained either from kelp (the ashes of burnt seaweed) or from the mother-liquors obtained in the purification of Chile saltpetre. In the former case the seaweed is burnt in large heaps, care being taken that too high a temperature is not reached, for if the ash be allowed to fuse much iodine is lost by volatilization. The product obtained after burning is known either as kelp or varec. Another method of obtaining kelp is to heat the seaweed in large retorts, whereby tarry and ammoniacal liquors pass over and a very porous residue of kelp remains. A later method consists in boiling the weed with sodium carbonate; the liquid is filtered and hydrochloric acid added to the filtrate, when alginic acid is precipitated; this is also filtered off, the filtrate neutralized by caustic soda, and the whole evaporated to dryness and carbonized, the residue obtained being known as kelp substitute. The kelp obtained by any of these methods is then lixiviated with water, which extracts the soluble salts, and the liquid is concentrated, when the less soluble salts, which are chiefly alkaline chlorides, sulphates and carbonates, crystallize out and are removed. Sulphuric acid is now added to the liquid, and any alkaline sulphides and sulphites present are decomposed, while iodides and bromides are converted into sulphates, and hydriodic and hydrobromic acids are liberated and remain dissolved in the solution. The liquid is run into the iodine still and gently warmed, manganese dioxide in small quantities being added from time to time, when the iodine distils over and is collected. In the second method it is found that the mother-liquors obtained from Chile saltpetre contain small quantities of sodium iodate NaIO3; this liquor is mixed with the calculated quantity of sodium bisulphite in large vats, and iodine is precipitated:—
The precipitate is washed and then distilled from iron retorts. Iodine may also be prepared by the decomposition of an iodide with chlorine, or by heating a mixture of an iodide and manganese dioxide with concentrated sulphuric acid. Commercial iodine may be purified by mixing it with a little potassium iodide and then subliming the mixture; in this way any traces of bromine or chlorine are removed. J. S. Stas recommends solution of the iodine in potassium iodide and subsequent precipitation by the addition of a large excess of water, the precipitate being washed, distilled in steam, and dried in vacuo over solid calcium nitrate, and then over solid caustic baryta.
Iodine is a greyish-black shining solid, possessing a metallic lustre and having somewhat the appearance of graphite. Its specific gravity is 4.948 (17°/4°). It melts at 114.2° C. and boils at 184.35° C. under atmospheric pressure (W. Ramsay and S. Young). The specific heat of solid iodine is 0.0541 (H. Kopp). Its latent heat of fusion is 11.7 calories, and its latent heat of vaporization is 23.95 calories (P. A. Favre and J. T. Silbermann). The specific heat of iodine vapour at constant pressure is 0.03489, and at constant volume 0.02697. It volatilizes slowly at ordinary temperatures, but rapidly on heating. Iodine vapour on heating passes from a violet colour to a deep indigo blue; this behaviour was investigated by V. Meyer (Ber., 1880, 13, p. 394), who found that the change of colour was accompanied by a change of vapour density. Thus, the density of air being taken as unity, Victor Meyer found the following values for the density of iodine vapour at different temperatures:—
| T° C. | 253 | 450 | 506 | 842 | 1027 | 1570 |
| Density | 8.89 | 8.84 | 8.73 | 6.08 | 5.75 | 5.67 |
This shows that the iodine molecule becomes less complex in structure at higher temperatures.
Iodine possesses a characteristic penetrating smell, not so pungent, however, as that of chlorine or bromine. It is only very sparingly soluble in water, but dissolves readily in solutions of the alkaline iodides and in alcohol, ether, carbon bisulphide, chloroform, and many liquid hydrocarbons. Its solutions in the alkaline iodides and in alcohol and ether are brown in colour, whilst in chloroform and carbon bisulphide the solution is violet. It appears to combine with the solvent (P. Waentig, Zeit. phys. Chem., 1909, p. 513). Its chemical properties closely resemble those of chlorine and bromine; its affinity for other elements, however, is as a rule less than that of either. It will only combine with hydrogen in the presence of a catalyst, but combines with many other elements directly; for example, phosphorus melts and then inflames, antimony burns in the vapour, and mercury when heated with iodine combines with it rapidly. It is completely oxidized to iodic acid when boiled with fuming nitric acid. It is soluble in a solution of caustic potash, a dilute solution most probably containing the hypoiodite, which, however, changes slowly into iodate, the change taking place rapidly on warming. When alkali is added to aqueous iodine, followed immediately by either soda water or sodium bicarbonate, most of the original iodine is precipitated (R. L. Taylor, Jour. Chem. Soc., 1897, 71, p. 725, and K. J. P. Orton, ibid. p. 830). Iodine can be readily detected by the characteristic blue coloration that it immediately gives with starch paste; the colour is destroyed on heating, but returns on cooling provided the heating has not been too prolonged. Iodine in the presence of water frequently acts as an oxidizing agent; thus arsenious acid and the arsenites, on the addition of iodine solution, are converted into arsenic acid and arsenates. A dilute solution of iodine prevents the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide by
