floating over the cruiser “Seiki” (1897 tons) built in Japan and navigated solely by Japanese. The government, constantly solicitous of increasing the fleet, inaugurated, in 1882, a programme of 30 cruisers and 12 torpedo-boats, and in 1886 this was extended, funds being obtained by an issue of naval loan-bonds. But the fleet did not yet include a single battleship. When the diet opened for the first time in 1890, a plan for the construction of two battleships encountered stubborn opposition in the lower house, where the majority attached much less importance to voting money for war-ships than to reducing the land tax. Not until 1892 was this opposition overcome in deference to an order from the throne that thirty thousand pounds sterling should be contributed yearly from the privy purse and that a tithe of all official salaries should be devoted during the same interval to naval needs. Had the house been more prescient, Japan’s position at the outbreak of war with China in 1894 would have been very different. She entered the contest with 28 fighting craft, aggregating 57,600 tons, and 24 torpedo-boats, but among them the most powerful was a belted cruiser of 4300 tons. Not one battleship was included, whereas China had two ironclads of nearly 8000 tons each. Under these conditions the result of the naval conflict was awaited with much anxiety in Japan. But the Chinese suffered signal defeats (see Chino-Japanese War) off the Yalu and at Wei-hai-wei, and the victors took possession of 17 Chinese craft, including one battleship. The resulting addition to Japan’s fighting force was, however, insignificant. But the naval strength of Japan did not depend on prizes. Battleships and cruisers were ordered and launched in Europe one after the other, and when the Russo-Japanese War (q.v.) came, the fleet promptly asserted its physical and moral superiority in the surprise of Port Arthur, the battle of the 10th of August 1904, and the crowning victory of Tsushima.
As to the development of the navy from 1903 onwards, it is not possible to detail with absolute accuracy the plans laid down by the admiralty in Tōkyō, but the actual state of the fleet in the year 1909 will be apparent from the figures given below.
Japan’s naval strength at the outbreak of the war with Russia in 1904 was:—
| Number. | Displacement. Tons. | |||
| Battleships | 6 | 84,652 | ||
| Armoured cruisers | 8 | 73,982 | ||
| Other cruisers | 44 | 111,470 | ||
| Destroyers | 19 | 6,519 | ||
| Torpedo-boats | 80 | 7,119 | ||
| — | ——— | |||
| Totals | 157 | 283,742 |
Losses during the war were:—
| Battleships | 2 | 27,300 | ||
| Cruisers (second and smaller classes) | 8 | 18,009 | ||
| Destroyers | 2 | 705 | ||
| Torpedo-boats | 7 | 557 | ||
| — | ——— | |||
| Totals | 19 | 46,571 |
The captured vessels repaired and added to the fleet were:—
| Battleships | 5 | 62,524 | ||
| Cruisers | 11 | 71,276 | ||
| Destroyers | 5 | 1,740 | ||
| — | ——— | |||
| Totals | 21 | 135,530 |
The vessels built or purchased after the war and up to the close of 1908 were:—
| Battleships | 4 | 71,500 | ||
| Armoured cruisers | 4 | 56,700 | ||
| Other cruisers | 5 | 7,000 | ||
| Destroyers | 33 | 12,573 | ||
| Torpedo-boats | 5 | 760 | ||
| — | ——— | |||
| Totals | 51 | 148,533 |
Some of the above have been superannuated, and the serviceable fleet in 1909 was:—
| Battleships | 13 | 191,380 | ||
| Armoured cruisers | 12 | 130,683 | ||
| Other cruisers, coast-defence ships and gun-boats | 47 | 165,253 | ||
| Destroyers | 55 | 20,508 | ||
| Torpedo-boats | 77 | 7,258 | ||
| — | ——— | |||
| Totals | 204 | 515,082 |
To the foregoing must be added two armoured cruisers—the “Kurama” (14,000) launched at Yokosuka in October 1907, and the “Ibuki” (14,700) launched at Kure in November 1907, but no other battleships or cruisers were laid down in Japan or ordered abroad up to the close of 1908.
There are four naval dockyards, namely, at Yokosuka, Kure, Sasebo and Maizuru. Twenty-one vessels built at Yokosuka since 1876 included a battleship (19,000 tons) and an armoured cruiser (14,000 tons); seven built at Kure since 1898 included a battleship (19,000 tons) and an Naval Dockyards. armoured cruiser (14,000 tons). The yards at Sasebo and Maizuru had not yet been used in 1909 for constructing large vessels. Two private yards—the Mitsubishi at Nagasaki and Kobe, and the Kawasaki at the latter place—have built several cruisers, gun-boats and torpedo craft, and are competent to undertake more important work. Nevertheless in 1909 Japan did not yet possess complete independence in this matter, for she was obliged to have recourse to foreign countries for a part of the steel used in ship-building. Kure manufactures practically all the steel it requires, and there is a government steel-foundry at Wakamatsu on which more than 3 millions sterling had been spent in 1909, but it did not yet keep pace with the country’s needs. When this independence has been attained, it is hoped to effect an economy of about 18% on the outlay for naval construction, owing to the cheapness of manual labour and the disappearance both of the manufacturer’s profit and of the expenses of transfer from Europe to Japan.
There are five admiralties—Yokosuka, Kure, Sasebo, Maizuru and Port Arthur; and four naval stations—Takeshiki (in Tsushima), Mekong (in the Pescadores), Ominato and Chinhai (in southern Korea).
The navy is manned partly by conscripts and partly by volunteers. About 5500 are taken every year, and the ratio is, approximately, 55% of volunteers and 45% of conscripts. The period of active service is 4 years and that of service with the reserve 7 years. On the average 200 cadets are admitted yearly, of Personnel. whom 50 are engineers, and in 1906 the personnel of the navy consisted of the following:—
| Admirals, combative and non-combative | 77 |
| Officers, combative and non-combative, below the rank of admiral | 2,867 |
| Warrant officers | 9,075 |
| Bluejackets | 29,667 |
| Cadets | 721 |
| ——— | |
| Total | 42,407 |
The highest educational institution for the navy is the naval staff college, in which there are five courses for officers alone. The gunnery and torpedo schools are attended by officers, and also by selected warrant-officers and bluejackets, who consent to extend their service. There is also Naval Education. a mechanical school for junior engineers, warrant-officers and ordinary artificers.
At the naval cadet academy—originally situated in Tōkyō but now at Etajima near Kure—aspirants for service as naval officers receive a 3 years’ academical course and 1 year’s training at sea; and, finally, there is a naval engineering college collateral to the naval cadet academy.
Since 1882, foreign instruction has been wholly dispensed with in the Japanese navy; since 1886 she has manufactured her own prismatic powder; since 1891 she has been able to make quick-firing guns and Schwartzkopf torpedoes, and in 1892 one of her officers invented a particularly potent explosive, called (after its inventor) Shimose powder.
Finance.—Under the feudal system of the Tokugawa (1603–1871), all land in Japan was regarded as state property, and parcelled out into 276 fiefs, great and small, which were assigned to as many feudatories. These were empowered to raise revenue for the support of their The Feudal Period. households, for administrative purposes, and for the maintenance of troops. The basis of taxation varied greatly in different districts, but, at the time of the Restoration in 1867, the general principle was that four-tenths of the gross produce should go to the feudatory, six-tenths to the farmer. In practice this rule was applied to the rice crop only, the assessments for other kinds of produce being levied partly in money and partly in manufactured goods. Forced labour also was exacted, and artisans and tradesmen were subjected to pecuniary levies. The yield of rice in 1867 was about 154 million bushels,[1] of which the market value at prices then ruling was £24,000,000, or
- ↑ The reader should be warned that absolute accuracy cannot be claimed for statistics compiled before the Meiji era.
