year 1815, and which at once became exceedingly popular owing to the beauty and variety of the images and the sudden and unexpected changes from one graceful form to another. A hundred years earlier R. Bradley had employed a similar arrangement which seems to have passed into oblivion (New Improvements of Planting and Gardening, 1710). The instrument has been extensively used by designers. In its simplest form it consists of a tube about twelve inches long containing two glass plates, extending along its whole length and inclined at an angle of 60°. The eye-end of the tube is closed by a metal plate having a small hole at its centre near the intersection of the glass plates. The other end is closed by a plate of muffed glass at the distance of distinct vision, and parallel to this is fixed a plate of clear glass. In the intervening space (the object-box) are contained a number of fragments of brilliantly coloured glass, and as the tube is turned round its axis these fragments alter their positions and give rise to the various patterns. A third reflecting plate is sometimes employed, the cross-section of the three forming an equilateral triangle. Sir David Brewster modified his apparatus by moving the object-box and closing the end of the tube by a lens of short focus which forms images of distant objects at the distance of distinct vision. These images take the place of the coloured fragments of glass, and they are symmetrically multiplied by the mirrors. In the polyangular kaleidoscope the angle between the mirrors can be altered at pleasure. Such instruments are occasionally found in old collections of philosophical apparatus and they have been used in order to explain to students the formation of multiple images. (C. J. J.)
KALERGIS, DIMITRI (Demetrios) (1803–1867), Greek
statesman, was a Cretan by birth, studied medicine at Paris and
on the outbreak of the War of Greek Independence went to the
Morea and joined the insurgents. He fought under Karaiskakis,
was taken prisoner by the Turks before Athens and mulcted of
an ear; later he acted as aide de camp to the French philhellene
Colonel Fabvier and to Count Capo d’Istria, president of Greece.
In 1832 he was promoted lieutenant-colonel. In 1843, as commander
of a cavalry division, he was the prime mover in the
insurrection which forced King Otto to dismiss his Bavarian
ministers. He was appointed military commandant of Athens
and aide de camp to the king, but after the fall of the Mavrocordato
ministry in 1845 was forced to go into exile, and spent
several years in London, where he became an intimate of Prince
Louis Napoleon. In 1848 he made an abortive descent on the
Greek coast, in the hope of revolutionizing the kingdom. He
was captured, but soon released and, after a stay in the island
of Zante, went to Paris (1853). At the instance of the Western
Powers he was recalled on the outbreak of the Crimean War and
appointed minister of war in the reconstituted Mavrocordato
cabinet (1854). He was, however, disliked by King Otto and
his consort, and in October 1855 was forced to resign. In 1861
he was appointed minister plenipotentiary in Paris, in which
capacity he took an important part in the negotiations which
followed the fall of the Bavarian dynasty and led to the accession
of Prince George of Denmark to the Greek throne.
KALEWALA, or Kalevala, the name of the Finnish national
epos. It takes its name from the three sons of Kalewa (or
Finland), viz. the ancient Wäinämöinen, the inventor of the
sacred harp Kantele; the cunning art-smith, Ilmarinen; and the
gallant Lemminkäinen, who is a sort of Arctic Don Juan. The
adventures of these three heroes are wound about a plot for
securing in marriage the hand of the daughter of Louhi, a hero
from Pohjola, a land of the cold north. Ilmarinen is set to
construct a magic mill, the Sanpo, which grinds out meal, salt
and gold, and as this has fallen into the hands of the folk of
Pohjola, it is needful to recover it. The poem actually opens,
however, with a very poetical theory of the origin of the world.
The virgin daughter of the atmosphere, Luonnotar, wanders for
seven hundred years in space, until she bethinks her to invoke
Ukko, the northern Zeus, who sends his eagle to her; this bird
makes its nest on the knees of Luonnotar and lays in it seven
eggs. Out of the substance of these eggs the visible world is
made. But it is empty and sterile until Wäinämöinen descends
upon it and woos the exquisite Aino. She disappears into space,
and it is to recover from his loss and to find another bride that
Wäinämöinen makes his series of epical adventures in the dismal
country of Pohjola. Various episodes of great strangeness and
beauty accompany the lengthy recital of the struggle to acquire
the magical Sanpo, which gives prosperity to whoever possesses
it. In the midst of a battle the Sanpo is broken and falls into
the sea, but one fragment floats on the waves, and, being stranded
on the shores of Finland, secures eternal felicity for that country.
At the very close of the poem a virgin, Mariatta, brings forth a
king who drives Wäinämöinen out of the country, and this is
understood to refer to the ultimate conquest of Paganism by
Christianity.
The Kalewala was probably composed at various times and by various bards, but always in sympathy with the latent traditions of the Finnish race, and with a mixture of symbolism and realism exactly accordant with the instincts of that race. While in the other antique epics of the world bloodshed takes a predominant place, the Kalewala is characteristically gentle, lyrical and even domestic, dwelling at great length on situations of moral beauty and romantic pathos. It is entirely concerned with the folk-lore and the traditions of the primeval Finnish race. The poem is written in eight-syllabled trochaic verse, and an idea of its style may be obtained from Longfellow’s Hiawatha, which is a pretty true imitation of the Finnish epic.
Until the 19th century the Kalewala existed only in fragments in the memories and on the lips of the peasants. A collection of a few of these scattered songs was published in 1822 by Dr Zacharius Topelius, but it was not until 1835 that anything like a complete and systematically arranged collection was given to the world by Dr Elias Lönnrot. For years Dr Lönnrot wandered from place to place in the most remote districts, living with the peasantry, and taking down from their lips all that they knew of their popular songs. Some of the most valuable were discovered in the governments of Archangel and Olonetz. After unwearied diligence Lönnrot was successful in collecting 12,000 lines. These he arranged as methodically as he could into thirty-two runes or cantos, which he published exactly as he heard them sung or chanted. Continuing his researches, Dr Lönnrot published in 1849 a new edition of 22,793 verses in fifty runes. A still more complete text was published by A. V. Forsman in 1887. The importance of this indigenous epic was at once recognized in Europe, and translations were made into Swedish, German and French. Several translations into English exist, the fullest being that by J. M. Crawford in 1888. The best foreign editions are those of Castren in Swedish (1844), Leouzon le Duc in French (1845 and 1868), Schiefner in German (1852). (E. G.)
KALGAN (Chang-Chia K’ow), a city of China, in the province
of Chih-li, with a population estimated at from 70,000 to
100,000. It lies in the line of the Great Wall, 122 m. by rail N.W.
of Peking, commanding an important pass between China and
Mongolia. Its position is stated as in 40° 50′ N. and 114° 54′ E.,
and its height above the sea as 2810 ft. The valley amid the
mountains in which it is situated is under excellent cultivation,
and thickly studded with villages. Kalgan consists of a walled
town or fortress and suburbs 3 m. long. The streets are wide,
and excellent shops are abundant; but the ordinary houses have
an unusual appearance, from the fact that they are mostly roofed
with earth and become covered with green-sward. Large
quantities of soda are manufactured; and the town is the seat
of a very extensive transit trade. In October 1909 it was connected
by railway with Peking. In early autumn long lines of
camels come in from all quarters for the conveyance of the tea-chests
from Kalgan to Kiakhta; and each caravan usually makes
three journeys in the winter. Some Russian merchants have
permanent residences and warehouses just outside the gate. On
the way to Peking the road passes over a beautiful bridge of seven
arches, ornamented with marble figures of animals. The name
Kalgan is Mongolian, and means a barrier or “gate-beam.”
KALGOORLIE, a mining town of Western Australia, 24 m.
by rail E.N.E. of Coolgardie. Pop. (1901), 6652. It is a thriving
town with an electric tramway service, and is the junction of four
lines of railway. The gold-field, discovered in 1893, is very
rich, supporting about 15,000 miners. The town is supplied
with water, like Coolgardie, from a source near Perth 360 m.
distant.
