During the existence of the Temple there was a double celebration of the Passover, a series of stipulated sacrifices being offered during the seven days in the Temple, details of which are given in Num. xxviii., but the family ceremonial was still kept up and gradually developed a special ritual, which has been retained among orthodox Jews up to the present day. The paschal lamb is no longer eaten but represented by the shank bone of a lamb roasted in the ashes; unleavened bread and bitter herbs (haroseth) are eaten; four cups of wine are drunk before and after the repast, and a certain number of Psalms are recited. The family service, termed Hagada shel Pesach, includes a description of the Exodus with a running commentary, and is begun by the youngest son of the house asking the father the reason for the difference in Passover customs.
It is stated in the gospels that the Last Supper was the Passover meal, though certain discrepancies between the accounts given in the Synoptics and in John render this doubtful. It is, at any rate, certain that Jesus came up to Jerusalem in order to join in the celebration of the Passover. When the Passover fell upon the sabbath, as occurred during his visit, a difficulty arose about the paschal sacrifice, which might involve work on the sabbath. There appears to have been a difference of practice between the Sadducees and the Pharisees on such occasions, the former keeping to the strict rules of the Law and sacrificing on the Friday, whereas the Pharisees did so on the Thursday. It has been suggested that Jesus followed the pharisaic practice, and ate the Passover meal (the Last Supper) on Thursday evening, which would account for the discrepancies in the gospel narratives (see Chwolson, Das letzte Passahmal Jesu, 2nd ed., St Petersburg, 1904). It seems probable in any case that the ritual of the Mass has grown out of that of the Passover service (see Bickell, Messe und Pascha, tr. W. F. Skene, Edinburgh, 1891). Up to the Nicene Council the Church kept Easter (q.v.) coincident with the Jewish Passover, but after that period took elaborate precautions to dissociate the two.
See the commentaries on Exodus and Leviticus; that of Kalisch on the latter book (vol. ii., London, 1871) anticipates much of the critical position. The article in Winer’s Bibl. Realwörterbuch gives a succinct account of the older views. A not altogether unsuccessful attempt to defend the Jewish orthodox position is made by Hoffmann in his Commentary on Leviticus (Berlin, 1906, ii. 116–224). Wellhausen’s views are given in his Prolegomena, ch. iii. A critical yet conservative view of the whole question is given by R. Schaefer, Das Passah-Mazzoih-Fest (Gutersloh, 1900) which has been partly followed above. For the general attitude towards the comparative claims of institutional archaeology and literary criticism adopted above see J. Jacobs, Studies in Biblical Archaeology (London, 1895). (J. Ja.)
PASSOW, FRANZ LUDWIG CARL FRIEDRICH (1786–1833),
German classical scholar and lexicographer, was born at Ludwigslust
in Mecklenburg-Schwerin on the 20th of September
1786. In 1807 he was appointed to the professorship of Greek
literature at the Weimar gymnasium by Goethe, whose acquaintance
he had made during a holiday tour. In 1815 he became
professor of ancient literature in the university of Breslau, where
he continued to reside until his death on the nth of March 1833.
His advocacy of gymnastic exercises, in which he himself took
part, met with violent opposition and caused a quarrel known
as the “Breslauer Turnfehde.” Passow’s great work was his
Handwörterbuch der griechischen Sprache (1819–1824), originally
a revision of J. G. Schneider’s lexicon, which appeared in the
fourth edition (1831) as an independent work, without
Schneider’s name (new ed. by Crönert, 1901). It formed the basis
of Liddell and Scott’s lexicon. Other works by him are Grundzüge
der griech. und röm. Literatur- und Kunstgeschichte (2nd. ed., 1829)
and editions of Persius, Longus, Tacitus Germania, Dionysius
Periegetes, and Musaeus. His miscellaneous writings have
been collected in his Opuscula academica (1835) and Vermischte
Schriften (1843).
See Franz Passow’s Lehen und Briefe (1839), by L. and A. Wachler, which contains a full bibliography.
PASSPORT, or safe-conduct in time of war, a document granted by a belligerent power to protect persons and property from the operation of hostilities. In the case of the ship of a neutral power, the passport is a requisition by the government of the neutral state to suffer the vessel tc pass freely with the crew, cargo, passengers, &c., without molestation by the belligerents. The requisition, when issued by the civil authorities of the port from which the vessel is fitted out, is called a sea-letter. But the terms passport and sea-letter are often used indiscriminately. A form of sea-letter (literae salvi conductus) is appended to the Treaty of the Pyrenees, 1659; The passport is frequently mentioned in treaties, e.g. the Treaty of Copenhagen, 1670, between Great Britain and Denmark. The violation of a passport, or safe conduct, is a grave breach of international law. The offence in the United States is punishable by fine and imprisonment where the passport or safe conduct is granted under the authority of the United States (Act of Congress, April 30, 1790). In its more familiar sense a passport is a document authorizing a person to pass out of or into a country, or a licence or safe-conduct to the person specified therein and authenticating his right to aid and protection. Although most foreign countries may now be entered without passports, the English foreign office recommends travellers to furnish themselves with them, as affording a ready means of identification in case of need. They are usually granted by the foreign office of a state, or by its diplomatic agents abroad. The English Foreign Office charges two shillings for a passport, whatever number of persons may be named in it. Passports granted in England are subject to a stamp duty of sixpence. They may be granted to naturalized as well as natural-born British subjects.
See “The Passport System,” by N. W. Sibley, in Jour. Comp. Leg. new series, vol. vii. The regulations respecting passports issued by the English Foreign Office as well as the passport requirements of foreign countries will be found in the annual Foreign Office List.
PASTE (O. Fr. paste, modern pâte. Late Lat. pasta, whence also in Span., Port, and Ital., from Gr. πάστηε or παστά, barley porridge, or salted pottage, πάσσειν, to sprinkle with salt), a mixture or composition of a soft plastic consistency. The term is applied to substances used for various purposes, as e.g. in cookery, a mixture of flour and water with lard, butter or suet, for making pies and pastry, or of flour and water boiled, to which starch or other ingredients to prevent souring are added, forming an adhesive for the affixing of wall-paper, bill-posting and other purposes. In technical language, the term is also applied to the prepared clay which forms the body in the manufacture of pottery and porcelain (see Ceramics) and to the specially prepared glass, known also as “strass,” from which imitation gems are manufactured. This latter must be the purest, most transparent and most highly refractive glass that can be prepared. These qualities are comprised in the highest degree in a flint glass of unusual density from the large percentage of lead it contains. Among various mixtures regarded as suitable for strass the following is an example: powdered quartz 300 parts, red lead 470, potash (purified by alcohol) 163, borax 22, and white arsenic 1 part by weight. Special precautions are taken in the melting. The finished colourless glass is used for imitation diamonds; and when employed to imitate coloured precious stones the strass is melted up with various metallic oxides. Imitation gems are easily distinguished from real stones by their inferior hardness and by chemical tests; they may generally be detected by the comparatively warm sensation they communicate to the tongue.
PASTEL, the name of a particular method of painting with dry pigments, so called from the “paste” into which they are first compounded. The invention of pastel, which used to be generally called “crayon,” has frequently been accredited to Johann Alexander Thiele (1685–1752), landscape-painter and etcher of distinction, as well as to Mme Vernerin and Mlle Heid (1688–1753), both of Danzig. But the claim cannot be substantiated, as drawing in coloured chalks had been practised long before, e.g. by Guido Reni (1575–1642), by whom a head and bust in this manner exists in the Dresden Gallery. Thiele was perhaps the first to carry the art to perfection, at least in Germany, where it was extensively exploited in the
