The face on important occasions is usually much painted, save
by young ladies in the heyday of beauty. The colour is very freely
applied, the cheeks being as much raddled as a clown's, and the
neck smeared with white, while the eyelashes are marked round
with “kuhl.” This is supposed to be beneficial to the eyes, and
almost every woman uses it. The eyebrows are widened and
painted till they appear to meet, while sham moles or stars are
painted on the chin and cheek; even spangles are stuck at times on
the chin and forehead. Tattooing is common among the poor and
in villages, and is seen among the upper classes. The hair, though
generally hidden by the “char-kadd,” is at times exposed and
plaitedl into innumerable little tails of great length, while a coquettish
little skull-cap of embroidery, or shawl, or coloured silk is worn.
False hair is common. The Persian ladies' hair is very luxuriant
and never cut; it is nearly always dyed red with henna, or with
indigo to a blue-black tinge; it is naturally a glossy black. Fair
hair is not esteemed. Blue eyes are not uncommon, but brown
ones are the rule. A full-moon face is much admired, and a dark
complexion termed “namak” (salt) is the highest native idea of
beauty. Most Persian women are small, with tiny feet and hands.
The figure is always lost after maternity, and no support of any
kind is worn.
A very short jacket, of gay colour, quite open in front, having tight sleeves with many metal buttons, is usually worn in summer, and a lined outer coat in cold weather. In winter a pair of very short white cotton socks are used, and tiny slippers with a high heel, in summer in the house ladies go often barefoot. The rest of the costume is composed of the “tumbun” or “shalvar,” short skirts of great width, held by a running string—the outer one being usually of silk, velvet, or Kashmir shawl, often trimmed with gold lace, or, amonithe poor, of loud-patterned chintz or print. Beneath are innumerable other garments of the same shape, varying in texture from silk and satin to print. The whole is very short, among the women of fashion extending only to the thigh. In winter an over-mantle like the “kulijah,” or coat of the man, with short sleeves, lined and trimmed with furs, is worn. Leg-coverings are now being introduced. In ancient days the Persian ladies always wore them, as may be seen by the pictures in the South Kensington Museum. Then the two embroidered legs, now so fashionable as Persian embroideries (“naksh”), occupied a girl from childhood to marriage in making; they are all sewing in elaborate patterns of great beauty, worked on muslin in silk. The outdoor costume of the Persian women is quite another thing. Enveloped in a huge blue sheet, with a yard of linen as a veil perforated for two inches square with minute holes, the feet thrust into two huge bags of coloured stuff, a wife is perfectly unrecognizable, even by her husband, when out of doors. The dress of all is the same; and, save in quality or costliness, the effect is similar.
As for the children, they are always when infants swaddled; when they can walk they are dressed as little men and women, and with the dress they generally ape the manners. It is a strange custom with the Persian ladies to dress little girls as boys, and little boys as girls, till they reach the age of seven or eight years; this is often done for fun, or on account of some vow—oftener to avert the evil eye.
Towns.—The principal cities of Persia with their populations as estimated in 1908 are: Teherān (280,000); Tabriz (200,000); Isfahan (100,000); Meshed (80,000); Kermān, Resht, Shiraz (60,000); Barfurush, Kazvin, Yezd (50,000); Hamadan, Kermānshāh (40,000); Kashan, Khoi, Urmia (35,000); Birjend, Burujird, Bushire, Dizful, Kum, Senendij (Sinna), Zenjan (25,000 to 30,000); Amol, Ardebil, Ardistan, Astarabad, Abekuh, Bam, Bander, Abbasi, Bander Lingah, Darnghan, Dilman, Istahbanat, Jahrum, Khunsar, Kumishah, Kuchan, Marand, Maragha, Nishapur, Sari, Sabzevar, Samnan, Shahrud, Shushter (10,000 to 20,000).
Political and Administrative Divisions.—The empire of Persia, officially known as Mamalik i Mahrusch i Iran, “the protected kingdoms of Persia,” is divided into a number of provinces, Which, when large, and containing important sub-provinces and districts, are called mamlikat, “kingdom,” when smaller, vilayat and ayalat, and are ruled by governors-general and governors appointed by and directly responsible to the Crown. These provinces are further divided into sub-provinces, vilayats, districts, sub-districts and parishes, buluk, nahiyeh, mahal, and towns, cities, parishes and villages, shehr, kassabeh, mahalleh, dih, which are ruled by lieutenant-governors and other functionaries appointed by and responsible to the governors. All governors are called hakim, or hukmran, but those of large provinces generally have the title of vali, and sometimes firmanfirma. A governor of a small district is a zabit; a deputy-governor is called naib el hukumeh, or naib el ayaleh; an administrative division is a kalamro, or hukumat. Until recently the principal governorships were conferred upon the shah's sons, brothers, uncles and other near relatives, but now many of them are held by men who have little if any connexion with the royal family. Also, the governors are now, as a rule, resident in their provinces instead of being absentees at the capital. There are also some small districts or dependencies generally held in fief, turyul, by princes or high functionaries who take the revenues in lieu of salaries, pensions, allowances, &c., and either themselves govern or appoint others to do so.
Every town has a mayor, or chief magistrate, called beglerbegi, “lord of lords,” kalantar, “the greater,” and sometimes darogha, “overseer,” or chief of police; every ward or parish, mahalleh, of a town and every village has a head-man called ked khoda, “house-lord.” These officers are responsible to the governor for the collection of the taxes and the orderly state of their towns, parishes and villages. In the important provinces and subprovinces the governors are assisted by a man of experience, to whom the accounts and details of the government are entrusted. This person, called viziar, or paishkar, is often nominated by the shah, and his functions in the provincial government are similar to those of the grand vizir in the central government, and comprise very extended administrative powers, including at times the command of the military forces in his province. Among the nomads a different system of titles prevails, the chiefs who are responsible for the taxes and the orderly conduct of their tribes and clans being known as ilkhani, ilbegi (both meaning “tribe-lord,” but the latter being considered an inferior title to the former), khan, rais, amir, mir, shaikh, tushmal, &c.
The governors and chiefs, excepting those possessing hereditary rights, are frequently changed; appointments are for one year only and are sometimes renewed, but it does not often occur that an official holds the same government for longer than that period, while it happens rarely that a province is governed by the same person for two or three years. This was not so formerly, when not infrequently an official, generally a near relation of the shah, held the same governorship for five, ten or even more years. The governorship of the province of Azerbaijan was an exception until the end of 1906, being always held by the Valiahd, “heir apparent,” or crown prince.
The political divisions of Persia, provinces, sub-provinces, districts, &c., ruled by hakims number over 200 (cf. the statement in Noldeke's Geschichte des Artachšîr Pâpakân, “after Alexander's death there were in Iran 240 local governors”), but the administrative divisions, hukumat, or kalamro, with governors appointed by the Crown and responsible to it for the revenues, have been under fifty for sixty-five years or more. In 1840 there were twenty nine administrative divisions, in 1868 twenty-two, in 1875 twenty nine, in 1884 nineteen, in 1890 forty-six, and in 1908 thirty-five, as follows:—
(a) Provinces:—
- Arabistan and Bakhtiari.
- Astarabad and Gurgan.
- Azerbaijan.
- Fars.
- Gerrus.
- Gilan and Talish.
- Hamadan.
- Irak, Gulpaigan, Khunsar, Kamereh, Kezzaz, Ferakan.
- Isfahan.
- Kashan.
- Kazvin.
- Kerman and Baluchistan.
- Kermānshāh.
- Kamseh.
- Khar.
- Khorasan.
- Kum.
- Kurdistan.
- Luristan and Burujird.
- Mazandaran.
- Nehavend, Malayir and Tusirkhan.
- Savah.
- Samnan and Damghan.
- Shahrud and Bostam.
- Teherān.
- Zerend and Bagdadi Shahsevens.
(b) Dependencies, or Fiefs:—
- Asadabad.
- Demavend.
- Firuzkuh.
- Josehekan.
- Kangaver.
- Natanz.
- Talikan.
- Tarom Ulia.
- Kharakan.
Roads.—With the exception of five short roads, having an aggregate length of less than 900 m, all the roads of the country are mere mule tracks, carriageable in the plains and during the dry season, but totally unfit for continuous wheeled traffic during all seasons, and in the hilly districts often so difficult as to cause much damage to goods and the animals carrying them. There are a few miles of roads in the immediate neighbourhood of Teherān leading from the city to royal palaces but not of any commercial
