of its contents. Emetics (Gr. ἔμετος, vomiting) are substances
given for the purpose of causing vomiting, e.g. ipecacuanha or
apomorphine. Anti-emetics or Sedatives (Lat. sedare, to compose)
arrest vomiting either by their central or local action, e.g. opium,
cocaine or cerium oxalate. Purgatives (Lat. purgare, to cleanse)
aid the onward passage of the contents of the intestinal canal,
either by increasing the contractions of its muscular coat as laxatives
(Lat. laxare, to loosen), e.g. as magnesia, or by increasing the flow
of fluid. Some are termed drastics (Gr. δραστικός, active) or cathartics
(Gr. καθαρτικός, cleansing), which produce watery evacuations.
Cholagogues (Gr. χολή, bile, ἀγωγός, leading) are purgatives which
act by increasing the flow of bile, either by causing an increased
secretion (e.g. podophyllum) or by sweeping it onwards by
stimulating the intestinal contractions (e.g. calomel).
III. Drugs acting on parasites. Anthelmintics (Gr. ἀντί, against, ἕλμινς, ἕλμινθος, a worm) are drugs which kill parasites inhabiting the intestine. The term vermicide (Lat. vermis, worm, caedere, to kill) is applied to drugs which directly kill the entozoa, while vermifuge (Lat. vermis, worm, fugare, to put to flight) is applied to the purgative usually given after the vermicide for the purpose of expelling the worm. Parasiticides or anti-parasitics destroy parasites; the terms are usually restricted to those acting on skin-parasites as contrasted with intestinal ones.
IV. Drugs acting on the urinary system. Diuretics (Gr. διά, through, οὖρον, the urine) increase the flow of urine, while lithontriptics (Gr. λίθος, stone, τρίβειν, to rub, grind down) are drugs given to prevent the formation of urinary calculi.
V. Drugs acting on the generative system. Aphrodisiacs (Gr. Ἀφροδίτη, the goddess of love) increase the action of the generative centre in the spinal cord; Anaphrodisiacs decrease its action. Ecbolics (Gr. ἐκβάλλειν, to throw out) or oxytocics (Gr. ὀξύς, sharp, quick, τόκος, parturition) stimulate uterine action. Emmenagogues (Gr. ἔμμηνα, menses, ἀγωγός, leading) are substances which increase the menstrual flow. Galactogogues (Gr. γάλα, milk) increase the secretion of milk, while antigalactogogues (e.g. belladonna) have the opposite effect.
VI. Drugs acting on the respiratory system. Expectorants increase the bronchial secretions; antispasmodics relax the spasm of the muscular coat of the bronchial tubes, e.g. stramonium. This latter term is also used for drugs which act as general depressants.
VII. Drugs or substances acting on the bodily heat. Antipyretics (Gr. ἀντί, against, πυρετός, fever) either increase the heat loss or diminish its production; e.g. phenacetin, cold water, &c.
VIII. Drugs or substances acting on the skin. Diaphoretics (Gr. διαφορεῖν, to carry through) increase the amount of sweat, either by acting directly on the sweat centres or on the nerve terminals. The word Sudorific (Lat. sudor, sweat) is applied to them when they act very powerfully. Anhidrotics or Antihidrotics (Gr. ἱδρώς, sweat) diminish the secretion of sweat. Emollients (Lat. mollis, soft) are substances which soften and protect the parts. Demulcents (Lat. demulcere, soften), soothe the skin or mucous membrane.
IX. Drugs acting on metabolism. Alteratives are drugs which alter the course of a disease, the mode of action being unknown. Tonics are drugs which increase the muscular tone of the body by acting either on the stomach, heart, spinal cord, &c.
X. Drugs acting on the blood. Antitoxins are organic products designed to neutralize the formation of the toxins of certain diseases in the blood. Toxins are also injected in order to stimulate the blood plasma to form antitoxins (see Bacteriology). Antiperiodics inhibit a disease having periodic recurrences; e.g. quinine in malaria. Haematinics are drugs which increase the amount of haemoglobin in the blood.
XI. Drugs acting on the nervous system. Anaesthetics (q.v.) diminish sensibility, either central or peripheral; Anodynes (Gr. ἀν-, priv., ὀδύνη, pain) relieve pain only, but, as in Analgesics (Gr. ἄλγησις, sense of pain), sensibility is unaltered. Stimulants are those which lead to excitation of the mental faculties and in quantity may lead to delirium and incoherence. Hypnotics (Gr. ὔπνος, sleep) or Soporifics (Lat. sopor, a deep sleep) are drugs which produce sleep without causing cerebral excitement. Narcotics (Gr. νάρκη, numbness) are those which besides producing sleep may in large doses depress the functions of respiration and circulation.
XII. Drugs which arrest the progress of putrefaction. This is either by inhibiting the growth of micro-organisms (Antiseptics) or by destroying them when present (Disinfectants).
- (H. L. H.)
PHARMACOPOEIA (lit. the art of the φαρμακοποιός, or drug-compounder), in its modern technical sense, a book containing directions for the identification of samples and the preparation of compound medicines, and published by the authority of a government or of a medical or pharmaceutical society. The name has also been applied to similar compendiums issued by private individuals. The first work of the kind published under government authority appears to have been that of Nuremberg in 1542, a passing student named Valerius Cordus showed a collection of medical receipts, which he had selected from the writings of the most eminent medical authorities, to the physicians of the town, who urged him to print it for the benefit of the apothecaries, and obtained for his work the sanction of the senatus. An earlier work, known as the Antidotarium florentinum, had been published under the authority of the college of medicine of Florence. The term “pharmacopoeia” first appears as a distinct title in a work published at Basel in 1561 by Dr A. Foes, but does not appear to have come into general use until the beginning of the 17th century. Before 1542 the works principally used by apothecaries were the treatises on simples by Avicenna and Serapion, the De synonymis and Quid pro quo of Simon Januensis; the Liber servitoris of Bulchasim Ben Aberazerim, which described the preparations made from plants, animals and minerals, and was the type of the chemical portion of modern pharmacopoeias; and the Antidotarium of Nicolaus de Salerno, containing Galenical compounds arranged alphabetically. Of this last work there were two editions in use—Nicolaus magnus and Nicolaus parvus, in the latter several of the compounds described in the larger edition were omitted and the formulae given on a smaller scale.
Until 1617 such drugs and medicines as were in common use were sold in England by the apothecaries and grocers. In that year the apothecaries obtained a separate charter, and it was enacted that no grocer should keep an apothecary's shop. The preparation of physicians' prescriptions was thus confined to the apothecaries, upon whom pressure was brought to bear to make them dispense accurately, by the issue of a pharmacopoeia in May 1618 by the College of Physicians, and by the power which the wardens of the apothecaries received in common with the censors of the College of Physicians of examining the shop of apothecaries within 7 m. of London and destroying all the compounds which they found unfaithfully prepared. This, the first authorized London Pharmacopoeia, was selected chiefly from the works of Mezue and Nicolaus de Salerno, but it was found to be so full of errors that the whole edition was cancelled, and a fresh edition was published in the following December. At this period the compounds employed in medicine were often heterogeneous mixtures, some of which contained from 20 to 70, or more, ingredients, while a large number of simples were used in consequence of the same substance being supposed to possess different qualities according to the source from which it was derived. Thus crabs' eyes, pearls, oyster-shells and coral were supposed to have different properties. Among other ingredients entering into some of these formulae were the excrements of human beings, dogs, mice, geese and other animals, calculi, human skull and moss growing on it, blind puppies, earthworms, &c. Although other editions of the London Pharmacopoeia were issued in 1621, 1632, 1639 and 1677, it was not until the edition of 1721, published under the auspices of Sir Hans Sloane, that any important alterations were made In this issue many of the ridiculous remedies previously in use were omitted, although a good number were still retained, such as dogs' excrement, earthworms, and moss from the human skull; the botanical names of herbal remedies were for the first time added to the official ones, the simple distilled waters were ordered of a uniform strength; sweetened spirits, cordials and ratifias were omitted as well as several compounds no longer used in London, although still in vogue elsewhere. A great improvement was effected in the edition published in 1746, in which only those preparations were retained which had received the approval of the majority of the pharmacopoeia committee, to these was added a list of those drugs only which were supposed to be the most efficacious. An attempt was made to simplify further the older formulae by the rejection of superfluous ingredients. In the edition published in 1788 the tendency to simplify was carried out to a much greater extent, and the extremely compound medicines which had formed the principal remedies of physicians for 2000 years were discarded, while a few powerful drugs which had been considered too dangerous to be included in the Pharmacopoeia of 1765 were restored to their previous position. In 1809 the French chemical nomenclature
