1893, 15, p. 198; 1894, 16 pp. 123, 154) has described PO(OH)2NH2 and PO(OH)(NH2)2, whilst the compound PO(OH)NH was obtained by Schiff (Ann, 1857, 103, p. 168) by acting with ammonia on the pentoxide. Numerous other nitrogen compounds have been obtained.
The atomic weight of phosphorus was determined by Berzelius, Pélouze, Jacquelin, Dumas, Schrotter, Brodie and van der Plaats. More recent are the investigations of G. Ter Gazarian (Compt. rend., 1909, 148, p. 1397) on hydrogen phosphide, which gave the value 30.906, and of G. P. Baxter and G. Jones (Journ. Amer. Chem Soc., 1910, 32, p. 298) on silver phosphate, which gave the value 31·04.
Therapeutics.—The phosphorus used in the British pharmacopoeia is obtained from calcium phosphate, and is a waxlike non-metallic substance soluble in oils and luminous in the dark. There are various medicinal preparations. In young animals phosphorus has a remarkable influence on the growth of bone, causing a proliferation of the jelly-like masses and finally a deposit in them of true bony material. Owing to this influence it has been used in rickets and osteomalacia. Its most effective use, however, is as a nerve tonic in paralysis agitans, loco motor ataxia, impotence and nervous exhaustion. In some skin diseases such as psoriasis, chronic eczema and acne indurata, phosphorus is very useful, and cases of diabetes mellitus and lymphadenoma have improved under some of its compounds. The hypophosphites have been recommended in pulmonary affections, being said to act as free phosphorus without being irritant, and the glycero-phosphates are certainly useful to stimulate metabolism. Dilute phosphoric acid is used as a gastric stimulant. It does not resemble phosphorus in its physiological action and cannot be used to replace it.
Toxicology.—Poisonous amounts of phosphorus are frequently taken or administered, criminally or accidentally, it being easily accessible to the public in the form of matches or of vermin pastes. They may have been swallowed several hours before symptoms of acute poisoning show themselves, with nausea and vomiting, and a burning in the oesophagus, stomach and abdomen. The important thing is to prevent the absorption of the poison, so emetics and purgatives should be given at once. Sulphate of copper, in doses of 3 to 5 gr., freely diluted and repeated every few minutes forms the harmless, black phosphide of copper, which is rapidly eliminated by the kidneys. The stomach may be washed out with warm water and then with a 2% solution of permanganate of potash, an enema of the same solution being given. The old French oil of turpentine is the best antidote to use in phosphorus poisoning, delaying the toxic effects, but ordinary oils are not only useless but harmful. When some time has elapsed before treatment and the phosphorus has become absorbed, the organic degenerative changes cannot be easily controlled. For the chronic form of industrial poisoning in the manufacture of lucifer matches—a form of necrosis, known in England as “phossy jaw” and in France as “mal chunique,” a localized inflammatory infection of the periosteum, ending with the death and exfoliation of part of the bone—see Match.
PHOTIUS (c. 820–891), patriarch of Constantinople (858–867 and
878–886). From his early years he displayed an extraordinary
talent and appetite for knowledge, and as soon as he had completed his own education he began to teach with distinguished
success grammar, rhetoric, divinity and philosophy. The way
to public life was probably opened for him by the marriage of
his brother Sergius to the princess Irene, sister of Theodora, who,
upon the death of her husband Theophilus in 842, had assumed
the regency of the empire Photius became captain of the guard
and subsequently first imperial secretary. The dissensions
between the patriarch Ignatius and Bardas, the uncle of the
youthful Emperor Michael III, brought promotion to Photius.
Ignatius was arrested and imprisoned (Nov. 858), and upon
refusing to resign his office was illegally deposed, while Photius,
although a layman, received all the necessary sacerdotal orders
within six days, and was installed as patriarch in his place.
Ignatius, continuing to refuse the abdication which could alone
have given Photius's elevation a semblance of legality, was
treated with extreme severity. His cause was subsequently
espoused by Pope Nicholas in a manner highly offensive to the
independent feeling of the Eastern Church. Photius felt himself
the champion of Eastern Christianity against Latin pretensions;
and when in 863 Nicholas finally anathematized and deposed
him, he replied by a counter-excommunication. Meanwhile, the
situation was suddenly changed by the murder of Photius's
patron, Bardas, by order of the emperor Michael, who was
himself assassinated by his colleague Basil in the following year
(867). The fall of Photius immediately ensued; he was removed
from his office and banished about the end of September 867,
a few days after the accession of Basil, and Ignatius was
reinstated on the 23rd of November. About 876 Photius was
suddenly recalled to Constantinople and entrusted with the
education of Basil's children. On the death of Ignatius,
probably in October 878, Photius, after a decent show of reluctance,
again filled the patriarchal throne. He then proceeded
to obtain the formal recognition of the Christian world. In
November 879 a synod was convened at Constantinople. The
legates of Pope John VIII. attended, prepared to acknowledge
Photius as legitimate patriarch, a concession for which John
was much censured by Latin opinion. He stood firm, however,
on the other two points which had long been contested between
the Eastern and Western Churches, the ecclesiastical jurisdiction
over Bulgaria and the introduction of the “filioque” clause
into the creed. He disowned his legates, who had shown a
tendency to yield, again excommunicated Photius, and thus
aroused the open hostility which has never been appeased to
this day. Strong in the support of the council, Photius simply
ignored him. At the height of glory and success he was suddenly
precipitated from his dignity by another palace revolution.
After the death of Basil (886), his son and successor Leo, who
had formerly been devoted to Photius, but in recent years
displayed great hatred towards him, deprived him of his office
and banished him to the monastery of Bordi in Armenia. From
this time Photius disappears from history. No letters of this
period of his life are extant, which leads to the inference that his
imprisonment was severe. The precise date of his death is
not known, but it is said to have occurred on the 6th of February
891.
For long after Photius's death his memory was held in no special honour by his countrymen. But when, in the crusading age, the Greek Church and state were alike in danger from Latin encroachments, Photius became a national hero, and is at present regarded as little short of a saint. To this character he has not the least pretension. Few men, it is probable, have been more atrociously calumniated; but, when every specific statement to his prejudice has been rejected, he still appears on a general review of his actions worldly, crafty and unscrupulous. Yet he shows to no little advantage as an ecclesiastical statesman. His firmness was heroic, his sagacity profound and far-seeing; he supported good and evil fortune with equal dignity; and his fall was on both occasions due to revolutions beyond his control. In erudition, literary power, and force and versatility of intellect he far surpassed every contemporary.
The most important of the works of Photius is his renowned Bibliotheca or Myriobiblon (ed. I. Bekker, 1824–1825), a collection of extracts from and abridgments of 280 volumes of classical authors (usually cited as Codices), the originals of which are now to a great extent lost. The work is specially rich in extracts from historical writers. To Photius we are inde ted for almost all we possess of Ctesias, Memnon, Conon, the lost books of Diodorus Siculus, and the lost writings of Arrian. Theology and ecclesiastical history are also very fully represented, but poetry and ancient philosophy are almost entirely ignored. It seems that he did not think it necessary to deal with those authors with whom every well-educated man would naturally be familiar. The literary criticisms, generally distinguished by keen and independent judgment, and the excerpts, vary considerably in length. The numerous biographical notices are probably taken from the work of Hesychius of Miletus. They Lexicon (Λέξεων Συναγωγή), published later than the Bibliotheca, was probably in the main the work of some of his pupils. It was intended as a book of reference to facilitate the reading of old classical and sacred authors, whose language and vocabulary were out of date, The only MS. of the Lexicon is the Codex Galeanus, formerly in the possession of Thomas Gale (q.v.), and now in the library of Trinity College, Cambridge (ed. S. A. Naber, 1864, with introduction on the authorities, critical commentary, and valuable indexes) His most important theological work is the Amphilochia, a collection of some 300 questions and answers on difficult points in Scripture, addressed to Amphilochius, archbishop of Cyzicus (ed Sophocles Oeconomus, Athens, 1858). Other similar works are his treatise in four books
