in a peculiar manner. The sharp edge, which passes slightly obliquely across the rim from one side of tie wheel to the other and back again, is the meeting of two exactly similar conical surfaces facing different ways and having their axes parallel to, but on opposite sides of, the axis of rotation of the wheel. As the wheel rotates with its rim facing the eye, the intersection of the two surfaces crosses and recrosses the line of vision during each revolution. Hence first the one illuminated side and then the other are presented to the eye in rapid alternation. The inventors of this instrument claim that their instrument can gauge accurately and easily the relative intensities of two lights, whether of the same or of different colour (Phil. Mag., 1904). There is no doubt that results obtained by different observers with a flicker photometer are in better agreement than with any other form of photometer. The comparative ease with which the balance is obtained even when the tints are markedly different shows that its action depends upon a visual distinction which the eye can readily appreciate, and this distinction is mainly one of brightness.
The spectrophotometer is an instrument which enables us to make photometric comparisons between the similarly coloured portions of the spectra of two different sources of light, or of two parts of the same original source after they have passed through different absorbing media. WhenSpectrophotometry. it is desired to compare the intensities of the spectra from two different sources a convenient form is the one described by E. L. Nichols. A direct vision spectroscope mounted upon a carriage travels along a track between the two sources. In front of the slit two right-angled triangular prisms are set so that the light from each source enters the one side of one prism perpendicularly and is totally reflected into the spectroscope. The two spectra are then seen side by side. Attention being fixed on some chosen narrow portion, say, in the green, the instrument is moved along the track between the sources until the two portions appear of the same intensity. The process is then repeated until the whole spectrum has been explored.
Fig. 2.
In Lummer and Brodhun's form of spectrophotometer the rays to be compared pass in perpendicular lines through the modified Swan double prism, and then together side by side through a spectroscope. By means of a simple modification in the form of the two prisms, Professor D. B.Bruce's Spectrophotometer. Brace (Phil. Mag., 1899) made the combined prism serve to produce the spectra as well as to effect the desired comparison. In this arrangement the compound prism ABC (fig 2) is made up of two equal right-angled prisms ADB and ADC placed with their longer sides in contact, so that the whole forms an equilateral prism with three polished faces. Bart of the interface AD is silvered, the silvering forming a narrow central strip running parallel to AD. Along the rest of the interface the two prisms are cemented together with Canada balsam or other material having as nearly as possible the same refractive index as the glass. When two rays R S enter symmetrically from opposite sides of the base of the compound prism as shown in the diagram, the ray R will pass through the prism except where the silver strip intercepts it, and) will form a part of a spectrum visible to the eye place at R', while to the same eye there will be visible the similarly dispersed ray SS' reflected from the silvered surface. Thus two systems of incident parallel rays of white light will form on emergence two spectra with corresponding rays exactly parallel. Wit these and other forms of instrument the aim of the experimenter is to make the two spectra of equal intensity by a method which enables him to compare the original intensities of the sources. In most cases the relative intensities of the portions of the spectra being compared cannot conveniently be altered by varying the distances of the sources. Recourse is therefore generally ha to one of the other methods already mentioned, such as the use of polarizing prisms or of rotating sectors. Under certain conditions K. Vierordt's method of allowing the two rays to pass through slits of different width leads to good results, but too great confidence cannot be placed upon it.
In other types of spectrophotometer, such as t ose associated with the names of H Trannin, A. Crova, H. Wild, G. Hufner, J. Konigsberger, A. Konig, F F. Martens and others, the equalization in brightness of two rays is effected by using polarized light, which can be cut down at pleasure by rotation of a Nicol prism. For example, in the Konig-Martens instrument the two rays which are to be compared enter the upper and lower halves of a divided slit. After passing through a lens they pass in succession through (1) a dispersing prism, (2) a Wollaston prism, (3) a bi-prism, and are finally focused where the eight spectra so produced can be viewed by the eve. Of these only twoKonig-Martens's Spectrophotometer. are made use of, the others being cut out. These two are polarized in perpendicular planes, so that if between the spectrum images and the eye a Nicol prism is introduced the intensities of any two narrow corresponding portions of the two spectra can be readily equalized. In terms of the angle of rotation of the Nicol the relative intensities of the original rays can be calculated. An important application of the spectrophotometer is to measure the absorptive powers and extinction coefficients of transparent substances for the differently coloured rays of light. By appropriate means the intensities of chosen corresponding parts of the two contiguous spectra are made equal-in other words, a match is established. Into the path of the rays of one of the spectra the absorbent substance is then introduced, and a match is again established. A measure of the loss of luminosity due to the interposition of the absorbent substance is thus obtained.
To facilitate experiments of this nature Dr J. R. Milne has devised a spectrophotometer which presents some novelties of construction (see Proceedings of the Optical Convention, 1905, vol. i.). The light from a bright flame is suitably projected by a lens so as to illuminate a small hole in theMilne's Spectrophotometer. end of the collimator. The rays from this point-source are made parallel by the collimator, and then pass, partly through the absorbing medium, partly through the space above it: These two parts of the original beam are transmitted through a dispersing prism and then fall upon a screen with two similar rectangular openings, the upper one allowing the unabsorbed part of the beam to pass, the lower that part which has been transmitted through the absorbing medium. The objective of the observing telescope converges the rays suitably upon a Wollaston prism, so that two spectra are seen side by side, having their light polarized in perpendicular planes. A Nicol prism is placed between the Wollaston prism and the eye-piece of the telescope, and by its rotation in the manner already described the intensities of any two corresponding portions of the two spectra can be brought to equality. By careful attention to all necessary details Milne shows that his instrument satisfies the requirements of a good spectrophotometer; for (1) the rays through the absorbing medium can be made strictly parallel; (2), the two spectra can be brought with ease accurately edge to edge without any diffraction effects; (3) the plane of the delimiting screen can be made conjugate to the retina of the observer's eye; (4) not only do the two spectra touch accurately along their common edge, but the two fans of rays which proceed from every point of the common edtge lie in one and the same plane; (5) the eye is called upon to ju ge the relative intensities not of two narrow slits but o two broad uniformly illuminated areas. Milne also points out that this instrument can be used as a spectropolarimeter.
E. L. Nichols considers that spectrophotometer's which depend for their action upon the properties of polarized light are necessarily open to serious objections, such as: selective absorption in the calcspar, altering the relative intensities of the constituents in the original rays; selective losses by reflection of polarized rays at the various optical surfaces; and the necessarily imperfect performance of all forms of polarizing media. To eliminate these defects as far as possible great care in construction and arrangement is needed, otherwise corrections must be applied.
It is evident that if the successive parts of two spectra are compared photometrically we may by a process of summation obtain a comparison of the total luminosities of the lights which form the spectra. This process is far too tedious to be of any practical value, but sufficiently accurate results may in certain cases be obtained by comparison of two or more particular parts of the spectra, for example, strips in the red, green and blue. Similar in principle is the method suggested by J. Macé de Lepinay, who matches his lights by looking first through a red glass of a particular tint and then through a chosen green. If R and G represent the corresponding ratios of the intensities, the required comparison is calculated from the formula I = R1 + 0.208 (1 − GR) A. Crova, one of the earliest workers in this subject, effects the photometric comparison of differently coloured lights by matching those monochromatic rays from the two sources which have the same ratio of intensities as the whole collected rays that make up the lights. Careful experiment alone can determine this particular ray, but were it once ascertained for the various sources of light in use the method would have the merits of rapidity and accuracy sufficient for
