excavators began by driving a level platform from the river bank towards the acropolis on the line of the two columns. They therefore had to deal with a constantly increasing mass of soil, for the moun- tain has been washed down to the river in a continuous slope. A hundred metres from the columns they struck the west end of a temple, and found that more of the structure was preserved as the covering of soil became deeper. The temple, which (as inscriptions show) was dedicated to Artemis, had been half-buried by a landslip from the acropolis hill in the historic earthquake of 17 A.D. It is a 4th-century Greek building of rich Ionic style, and was still un- finished at the time of the earthquake, then cleared and partially rebuilt, and finally used as a water reservoir in the Byzantine period. At the west end, to which the two standing columns belong, some of the other shafts are still preserved to the height of 30 feet. Great efforts were made to remove the deep deposit of earth from the surrounding precinct, and the temple now stands in a wide, open space; but on its east front, where the cut face of the slope is 50 ft. high, progress was checked by a solid mass of the hill which had come near to wrecking the building altogether, having finished its slide less than 100 ft. from the portico. This mass had buried a great part of the Lydiarr and Greek cities, but on a protected slope some undisturbed Lydian strata were found. Here the pottery sequence goes back through sub-Mycenaean wares to simpler geometric and plain black and grey fabrics. These provide means for classifying the rich finds from the cemetery which was excavated on the other bank of the river. The tombs, which are chambers cut in tiers in the hard clay of the hillside, were used with few exceptions for repeated burials, and the ejected offerings had been scattered down the slope. Two tumuli were dug in the necropolis of Bin Tepe with- out result. Great quantities of jewellery were found in the tombs, the gold work said to resemble the Etruscan. Especially noteworthy are numbers of engraved gems in Graeco-Persian (no doubt Lydian) style. These are all of the highest quality. Many bronze mirrors were found. The local pottery is marked in form by a conical base, in technique by a white slip, like the archaic Greek wares of Asia. Some important sculpture was found, and a large num- ber of inscriptions, the most valuable being two bilingual texts, in Lydian-Aramaic and Lydian-Greek. These have not, however, given the key to the Lydian language, nor do they support the theory that Etruscan was derived from Lydian. Annual reports of the excavations were published in the American Journal of Archaeology.
Africa. Next in importance after Sardis among ancient sites explored in 1910-20 is the Greek city of Cyrene, also opened by American enterprise. An expedition, led by R. Norton, made its way there in 1910, but, owing to organized hostility among the natives, its first progress was slow and difficult. In 1911 H. F. de Cou was murdered by hired Arabs, but work was continued until the end of the first season, and before the second season could begin, the country was seized by Italians. The coming of this na- tion here as in Rhodes put an end to the work of others, and the American excavation has been continued by the Italian Government on a larger scale and with the protection of a military force. The principal finds, as in the earlier British search by R. Murdoch Smith and E. A. Porcher, are Graeco-Roman statues. About twenty had been found up to 1921, among them Zeus with the aegis, Hermes, Alexander as a Dioscurus, Eros stringing a bow, three groups of the Graces, two satyrs, a headless Aphrodite, and a head of Athena found by the Americans. Most of the sculpture decorated a bath restored by Hadrian. The Aphrodite, which is thought to be the finest piece, was removed to the Museo delle Terme in Rome; the rest are at Bengazi.
Some more pieces of Graeco-Roman sculpture have been recovered by the French from the sunken ship off Mahdia. The finest bronzes which had been found before 1910 were published in Monuments Piot, vols. xvii., xviii. Among the new finds are a head of Athena, a large statuette of Hermes, and a dog. Archaeological work in Africa met with little or no interruption during the war, either in French or Italian territory. Prisoners of war have indeed done scientific service as labourers on certain sites. But except at Cyrene, the new material from Africa is Punic or Roman, and not Greek.
Sicily and Italy. In Sicily there has been continuous work on Greek sites at Camarina, Catania, Messina, and Syracuse; the most important results were obtained at Syracuse. There the temple of Athena was excavated by P. Orsi from 1912 to 1917. A pre-Hellenic settlement was found under the temple, marked by incised and painted geometric pottery. This was followed by archaic Greek remains of the early colonists, Asiatic and Protocorinthian pottery, and some carved ivories. Fragments of the temple included a series of terra-cotta architectural ornaments. Among Sicilian dis- coveries must be counted a remarkable archaic statue of a seated goddess which was in Paris at the outbreak of war, and was soon afterwards acquired by the Berlin Museum.
Researches in South Italy have produced new evidence of the foundation and early relations of the Greek colonies. At Caulonia in 1912 Orsi found prehistoric remains, the Greek city defences, a Doric temple, houses and a cemetery. Here, as elsewhere in Magna Graecia, the architectural terra-cpttas are a valuable part of the finds. The sanctuary of Hera Lacinia at Croton was located in 1912. E. Gabriel's extensive researches at Cumae were published in 1913.
A temple of Zeus was excavated on a terrace of the acropolis; the great temple of Apollo crowned the summit of the hill. Here, too, the date of the earliest remains goes bac <: before the Hellenic settle- ment, to the nth century B.C. In one of three Greek temples excavated at Locri were tiles inscribed in Greek with the name of Clodius Pulcher. A cemetery at Locri yielded large numbers of poor Greek vases, and some exceptionally fine bronze mirrors.
Etruria. A few mirrors and some Greek vases were found in Etruria at Vignanello in 1913, and from an Etruscan tomb at Todi in 1915 there were obtained some bronzes and more than 70 red- figure vases. The best bronze was a helmet with reliefs on the cheek- pieces ; the finest vase an Attic kylix signed by Pamphaios. Etruscan antiquities are receiving closer study, but its first results will prob- ably tend more to controversy than to agreement. A paper by F. Weege (in Jahrbuch, 1916) on the two most important series of paintings at Corneto argues that these were executed in the archaic style of North Ionia by a Greek artist who had lived among the Etruscans long enough to understand their national life and spirit. To Greeks also we shall perhaps attribute the splendid terra-cotta figures found at Veii in 1916. These had been piously buried near a Roman road. The best preserved is an archaic Apollo, whose arms only are missing. Fragments of other figures indicate that the com- plete work was a group, not for architectural decoration, represent- ing a contest of Apollo and Heracles about a hind in the presence of Hermes and Artemis. That the archaic art of Etruria was wholly Greek it is hard to believe. It is still equally hard to distinguish Greek work from Etruscan art inspired by Greek models.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Periodicals: (American) American Journal of Archaeology; Classical Journal; (Austrian) Jahreshefte des Oster- reichischen Archdologischen Instituts; (British) Annals of Archae- ology and Anthropology; Annual of the British School at Athens; Antiquaries Journal; Archaeologia; Journal of Hellenic Studies; Year's Work in Classical Studies; (French) Bulletin de Carres pondance Hellenique; Comptes Rendus de l'Acadcmie_ des Inscriptions et Belles- Leltres; Revue Archcologique; Revue des Etudes Grecques; (German) Jahrbuch and Athenische Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archdologischen Instituts; (Greek) 'Apx<"oXoyu-A>' AeXriov, 'A/>x<"oXo7i7 'Eri/j.epis and npaxTiKa of the Athenian Archaeological Society; (Ital- ian) Annuario della R. Scuola Archeologica di Atene; Atene e Roma; Ausonia; Bolleltinp d'Arte; Cronaca di Belle Arti; Monument i Antichi; Notizie degli Scavi di Antichitct and Rendiconti della R. Accademia del Lincei. Special Publications, Prehistoric Period : R. B. Seager, Explorations in the Island of Mochlos (1912); R. M. Burrows, The Discoveries in Crete (1913); E. H. Hall, Aegean Archaeology (1915); Excavations in Eastern Crete: Sphoungaras (1912) ; Vrokastro (1914) ; R. B. Seager, The Cemetery of Pachyammos, Crete (1916); A. J. B. Wace and M. S. Thompson, Prehistoric Thessaly (1912); German Archaeological Institute, Tiryns, vols. i., ii. (1912) ; Classical Period: F. H. Marshall, Discovery in Greek Lands (1920) ; Cyrene, Noti- ziario Archeologico del Ministero delle Colonie (1915) ; Ecole Francaisa d'Athenes, Exploration Archcologique de Dclos (1911-4); J. Keil, Ephesos, FiihrerdurchdieRiiinensldtte (1915) ; Austrian Archaeological Institute, Forschimgen in Ephesos (vol. ii., 1912); Th. Wiegand, f im Vorldufigen Bericht uber Milet und Didyma (1911); Milet (vol. i., parts iii., iv., v., vol. iii., part i., 1913-9); Altertumer von Pergamon (vol. i., parts i.-iii., 1912-3); F. Kinch, Fouilles de Vroulia, Rhodes (1914); Sardis (vol. vi., part i.) ; E. Littmann, Lydian Inscriptions, (vol. xi.); H. W. Bell, Coins (1916); E. H. Minns, Scythians and Greeks (1913); Th. Wiegand, Wissenschaftliche Veroffentlichungen des deulsch-tiirkischen Denkmalschutz-Kommandos (1920).
(E. J. F.)
ARCHITECTURE (see 2.369). UNITED KINGDOM. The years
1910-4 were years of great building activity in England.
Money was plentiful and only faint rumblings of the impending storm of labour troubles were heard. Many of the recently incorporated municipalities, whose activities were constantly increasing and were hampered by the inadequacy of the old borough council offices to accommodate their increasing staffs, were desirous of obtaining municipal buildings worthy of their civic dignity. The large commercial firms were meditating
building new offices of ever-increasing splendour, and the newly enriched, who have always had the ambition to possess land and become county magnates, were planning palatial residences for their newly acquired estates. The war put a stop to all these activities with a suddenness that could hardly have been contemplated. So many years had elapsed since the last great European war that its effects had been forgotten. In fact, opinions were by no means at one as to the effect of war on the arts generally. On the one hand there is no doubt that in the ancient and mediaeval monarchies and republics the arts flourished vigorously during the stirring times when these states were consolidating their power by conquest, some of their finest works having been erected as records in stone of victories over their enemies and their cities having been embellished with
