and the scientific staff included J. Murray, R. M. Anderson and F. Johansen, naturalists; G. S. Malloch, B. Mamen, and J. J. O'Neill, geologists; H. Beuchat and D. Jenness, anthropologists; W. McKinley and B. M. McConnel, meteorologists; and Dr. Forbes Mackay, surgeon. The “Karluk,” with most of the northern party on board, was caught in the ice 20 m. N.E. of Flaxman I. on Aug. 12. The vessel drifted W. until, Sept. 20, when Stefansson and several men were ashore hunting, it broke away during a heavy gale, drifted with the pack until it was crushed, and sank in lat. 72° 8' N., long. 173° 50' W., 60 m. N.E. of Herald I., on Jan. 11 1914. All hands and ample stores were got safely on to the ice. After the loss of a reconnoitring party sent south, Bartlett decided to await the return of daylight before making a move, but Murray, Forbes Mackay, Beuchat and a sailor, eager to attempt the journey, set off for the land, with Bartlett's permission but contrary to his advice. They were seen some days later and never heard of again. On March 12 the survivors landed on Wrangell I. and a week later Bartlett, accompanied by an Eskimo and his crew and seven dogs, set out for the mainland, 160 m. across the ice, to seek help. He reached the shores of Siberia in 17 days, and travelling along the coast via Cape North, reached Emma Harbour, whence he crossed in a whaler to St. Michael. The “King and Wing” rescued the survivors on Wrangell I., and the “Bear” brought them to Nome. Malloch, Mamen and another man had died on the island. The remainder of the expedition, employing several small sloops, did a great deal of useful work. Stefansson, with two companions and a dog team, left Martin Point, Alaska, on March 22 1914, reached lat. 73° N., long. 140° W., and then turned E. to Banks I., landing near Cape Prince Alfred on June 26 and joining his vessel at Cape Kellett. In Feb. 1915 with three companions, Stefansson reached Prince Patrick I., and completed the charting of the coasts. Pushing on he discovered a new island in Gustav Adolf Sea. In 1916 he reached this island, and discovered a second smaller island N. of Ellef Ringnes I. and a third, also small, E. of the first and N. of Melville Island. Ellef Ringnes I. was found to be two islands, and Christian I. was found to be much smaller than had been supposed. Much survey work was also done in Banks I., Victoria I. and the coasts of Dolphin and Union Straits. In 1918 a severe attack of fever compelled Stefansson to hand over the command for the last season's work to S. Storkersen. Storkersen, setting out from Cross I. on the coast of Alaska, travelled over the sea ice to lat. 73° 58' N., long. 147° 50' W. and then returned to the mainland. This journey practically removed from the map the doubtful Keenan Land (reported vaguely in the seventies of last century), while soundings taken during the drift of the “Karluk” and other journeys of the expedition show a narrow continental shelf, and reduce the probability of land existing in the western part of the Beaufort Sea. On the other hand a sounding of only 275 fathoms, about 100 m. N.W. of Isachsen I., indicates the possible occurrence of land in the eastern part of that sea, although Crocker Land has turned out to be a myth. Stefansson's expedition also brought back many observations in anthropology and geology.
Russian Expeditions.—Several ambitious but ill-equipped Russian expeditions sailed for Arctic regions in 1912, but came to grief and accomplished little or nothing. G. L. Sedoff hoped to make Franz Josef Land a base for a march to the Pole. He left Archangel in the “Phoca” and wintered at the Pankratiev Is. in the N. of Noyaya Zemlya. Next summer the “Phoca” (rechristened the “Suvorin”) reached Hooker I., Franz Josef Land. Sedoff set out for the Pole with two companions and 24 dogs. On the death of the leader in the vicinity of Rudolf I. the journey was abandoned. G. L. Brusilov sailed in July 1912 to attempt the north-east passage in the “Santa Anna.” The vessel was beset in the ice in the Kara Sea in lat. 71 N. and drifted a year and a half to the vicinity of Franz Josef Land. Eleven men left the ship in April 1914 in lat. 83° N., long. 63° E. Two of these reached Cape Flora, where the “Phoca” found them; the others perished on the way. Nothing has since been heard of the ship and the remainder of its crew. V. A. Rusanov in the “Hercules” was last heard of in 1912 in Matochkin Shar on his way to the Kara Sea on a voyage of exploration. The Russian Government in 1914 sent the “Eclipse” under Otto Sverdrup to search for Brusilov and Rusanov. Sverdrup passed through the Kara Sea searching the coast eastward to Taimir Land where he wintered in lat. 74° 45' N., long. 92° E. He was able to be of some service to Vilkitski's expedition wintering about 180 m. to the east, but returned to Archangel in Sept. 1915 without having found any trace of the missing expeditions.
Russian efforts to explore the N. coast of Asia in ice-breakers were far more successful, but unfortunately there is every likelihood of the detailed observations which were sent to the Ministry of Marine having been lost. The “Taimir” and “Vaigach,” which Capt. Sergiev had taken from Petropavlovsk to near Cape Chelyuskin the previous Sept., left Anadir in July 1913 under Comm. B. A. Vilkitski and Comrn. P. A. Novopashennoi for an hydrographic survey of the Arctic coast of Siberia. After charting Chaun Bay the vessels separated, the " Vaigach " following the coast westward and the “Taimir” turning N. for the New Siberia Islands. A small new island was discovered E. of this group and named General Vilkitski Island. Bennett I. was found to be much smaller than had been supposed, and no sign of Sannikov Land (reported on more than one occasion to have been seen from Kotelnoi, New Siberia I.) was discovered on the route to Taimir Land. Here the two vessels met, and continued the coast survey. New land was discovered N.W. of Cape Chelyuskin. Nikolas Land extends from lat. 77° 50' N., long. 99° E., to at least lat. 81° N. It was surveyed on the east, where a landing was made in lat. 80° 04' N. The land rises to 1,500 ft., is heavily glaciated, and in geological structure is similar to the mainland. Between Nikolas Land and the mainland two islands were discovered and named Alexis and Starokadomski, each with a greatest width of about 6 miles. The existence of these lands helps to account for the usual obstruction of pack-ice in the waters of the Nordenskjold Archipelago and the Kara Sea. The vessels being prevented by ice from going farther westward, returned eastward along the N. of the New Siberia Is. to Koliuchin Bay (Sept. 29) and back to Vladivostok. In July 1914 Vilkitski set out again with the same vessels. Ice prevented a search of Wrangell I. for Stefansson's men. A new island was discovered in lat. 76 10' N., long. 153 E., and surveyed. The vessels passed N. of the New Siberia Is., again seeing no sign of Sannikov Land, and reached Cape Chelyuskin late in August. Some further surveys of Nikolas Land were made, but ice conditions were bad. Attempts to push westward failed, and by the middle of Sept. winter quarters were found about 100 m. W. of Cape Chelyuskin, the “Taimir” in lat. 76° 41' N., long. 100° 50' E. and the “Vaigach” in lat. 76° 54' N., long. 100° 13' E. The vessels got clear of the ice, and proceeded early in Aug., passed through the Kara Sea without encountering ice, and reached Archangel in Sept. 1915.
Roald Amundsen.—The long-deferred expedition of Roald Amundsen to the polar basin left Norway in June 1918 in the “Maud,” built on an improved model of the “Fram.”
The first winter was passed near Cape Chelyuskin. From there two men were sent home with dispatches via Siberia, but have not been heard of again. In Sept. 1919 the “Maud” continued her voyage through the ice-encumbered Nordenskjold Sea and Laptev Strait. East of the New Siberia Is. Amundsen pushed his vessel into the pack in order to begin his drift across the Arctic Ocean, but on finding that the current was setting S. he abandoned the attempt for the year, and sought winter quarters at Aion I., Chaun Bay. In July 1920 he arrived at Nome in Alaska having completed the north-east passage. Soon after he left for the north to resume his original plan. The “Maud” may be expected to emerge between Greenland and Spitsbergen not later than 1923. The Norwegian Government has arranged for depots of food to be laid on the N. coasts of Greenland and Grant Land. The work was done in 1920 by the Dane, G. Hansen.
See also the article Spitsbergen.
Claims to Sovereignty.—During the last ten years practically all unclaimed Arctic lands have come under the sovereignty of one or other State. The treaty transferring the Danish West Indies to the United States (1917) contained a clause recognizing Denmark's right to extend her economic and political sphere over the whole of Greenland. Soon after the outbreak of the World War Russia notified a formal claim to the Arctic islands lying N. of Asia. In Aug. 1914 Capt. Isliamov hoisted the Russian flag on Franz Josef Land in anticipation of any claim that Austria might sustain by right of discovery. The Supreme Council in 1919 conferred the sovereignty of Spitsbergen and Bear I. on Norway. All the islands of the American Arctic Archipelago are claimed by Canada.
Bibliography.—F. Nansen, In Northern Mists (1911), throws new light on the early history of Arctic exploration. A bibliography of much use but limited scope is by J. M. Hulth, “Swedish Arctic and Antarctic Explorations,” 1758–1910, K. Svenska Vet. Akad. Årsbok för 1910. Les Expéditions polaires depuis 1800: Liste des États-Major, by J. Denucé (1911) covers both Arctic and Antarctic. A useful general “Map of the Arctic Regions” with a list of authorities, appeared in Bull. Amer. Geog. Soc. 45 (1913). The Danish work in Greenland is recorded mainly in Meddelelser om Grönland; in vol. xli. (1913) G. Amdrup, “Report on the Danmark Expedition, 1906–1908”; in vol. lii. (1915) E. Mikkelsen, “Report on the Alabama Expedition, 1909-1912”; in vol. li. (1915), K. Rasmussen, “Report on the First Thule Expedition, 1912”; in vol. liii. (1917), H. P. Steensby, “An Anthropogeographical Study of the Origin of the Greenland Eskimo.” For other Danish work see K. Rasmussen and others, Grönland langs polhavet, udforskningen af Grönland fra Melvillebugten til Kap Morris Jesup: Skildring af den II. Thule Expedition, 1916–18 (1919), also E. Mikkelsen, Lost in the Arctic (1913). Official reports of the Stefansson expedition in Report of the Dept. of Naval Service, Ottawa, 1915, 1916, 1917 and 1918; also Report of the Canadian Arctic Expedition 1913–18 (10 vols. Ottawa, in course of publication); “The Activities of the Canadian Arctic Expedition from 1916–1918,” V. Stefansson, Geog. Rev. Oct. 1918; V. Stefansson, My Life with the Eskimo (1913), and R. A. Bartlett and R. T. Hale, The Last Voyage of the Karluk (1916). For Vilkitski's work see translation from Russian in Geog. Journal vol. liv. pp. 367–375 (1919) and Pelermanns Mitteilungen, vol. lx.. I, 1914. pp. 197–8. Accounts of the Crocker Land expedition are to be found in the Geog. Rev. from 1913 onwards and in U.S. Naval Inst. Proc. vol. xliii., 1917, and vol. xliv., 1918. F. Nansen, “Spitsbergen
