human body: therefore, it is conceivable that the advitants are alkaloidal substances or at least substances which exercise regulative functions without being structural elements.
The most suggestive observations of recent times in this direction, however, are those relating to anaphylaxis. If a minute amount of a protein be introduced into the blood stream of an animal, after a certain interval it is rendered so sensitive to the action of the particular protein that if a further amount be in- jected the animal is killed. A different protein has no lethal effect. In this way a clear distinction can be established between such apparently similar materials as white of egg from the hen and that from the duck. Nay more according to Dakin and Dale if egg albumin be treated with weak alkali and the treated ma- terial be injected into the animal it produces no sensitiveness either to itself or to untreated egg albumin, and animals sensi- tised by the latter are not affected by it. The effect of alkali, it is known, is to racemise the albumin ; that is to say, to bring about a local change such as that which attends the conversion of glu- cose into galactose; in the albumin only a few centres can be open to such a change, yet its fit is spoilt thereby and it is no longer operative in the system but runs out unchanged in the urine.
Even in the case of adrenaline only the natural form is opera- tive; the optically opposite form the other glove has little effect. Attention may be called here to a striking recent observa- tion in connexion with this alkaloid. When tellurium is com- bined with methylic iodide two isomeric compounds are formed, differing in colour and crystalline form: in itself this is a remark- able result and proof that tellurium has unsymmetric affinities. The two compounds are probably cis- and trans-forms, thus:
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These produce entirely different effects on animals: the one, presumably the trans-form, slows and weakens the heart and the blood-pressure falls. The other, in which the iodine atoms per- haps act together, has the most profound stimulant action on the medulla, giving rise to an increase of blood-pressure and increas- ing the depth and rapidity of respiration. Generally, before the blood has reached the normal again, a second rise occurs; this is due to the liberation of adrenaline from the supra-renal glands, upon which the cis-compound exerts an unique and specific ef- fect not comparable with that produced by any other known chemical. Large doses of the compound, such as 60 milligrammes to a cat, paralyse the whole nervous system brain, spinal cord and motor nerves (cf. Vernon, Journ. Chem. Soc., 1921, 108).
This effect may be likened to that of secretin, which according to Bayliss and Starling serves to liberate from the pancreas the proteoclastic enzyme which is active in intestinal digestion.
In fine, whatever the direction in which we look, the influence of structure is paramount and determinative: hence the fixity of our human nature. If organic chemistry teaches us anything it is that no education can alter our mechanism : only changes in the germ can be effective: wherein the patterns are laid down in pro- teins especially, and so handed on from generation to generation. (H. E. A.)
CHESTERTON, GILBERT KEITH (1874- ), English author (see 6. in). More recent works: The Innocence of Father Brown (1911) and The Wisdom of Father Brown (1914), both collections of detective stories; Man Alive (1912); The Vic- torian Age in Literature (1913); The Flying Inn (1914); A Short History of England (1917) ; Irish Impressions (1919) and a play, Magic (1913), which was produced at the Little theatre, London.
CHEYNE, THOMAS KELLY (1841-1915), English divine and biblical critic (see 6.116), died at Oxford Feb. 16 1915. His later works include The Two Religions of Israel (1910); Mines of Isaiah Re-explored (1912); The Veil of Hebrew History (1913) and Fresh Voyages on Infrequented Waters (1914).
CHEYNE, SIR WILLIAM WATSON, 1st BART. (1852- ),
British surgeon, was born in the Shetland Is. Dec. 14 1852
and was educated at Edinburgh, where he took his degrees in
surgery and medicine in 1875. He also studied at Vienna, Paris
and Strasbourg. In 1880 he was appointed to the chair of sur-
gery at King's College, London, and from 1888 to 1890 was Hun-
terian professor of surgery at the Royal College of Surgeons.
From 1900 to 1901 he was consulting surgeon to the South
African forces. On the outbreak of war in 1914 he became consulting surgeon to the Royal Navy and in this capacity accompanied the British forces to Gallipoli. He was created a baronet
in 1908 and in 1916 received the K.C.M.G.
His published works include Antiseptic Surgery (1882); The Anti- septic Treatment of Wounds (1885); Lectures on Suppuration and Septic Disease (1889); Objects and Limits of Operations for Cancer (1896); Manual of Surgical Treatment (7 vols., 1899 1903); besides various papers on the treatment of wounds in war.
CHICAGO (see 6.118). With a pop. in 1920 of 2,701,705, representing an increase of 23-6% over the enumeration for 1910 (2,185,283), Chicago easily maintained its position as the second city in the United States. While the city's growth was greater proportionately than that of New York, which was 17-9%,
it was considerably less absolutely. The percentage of increase was less than in any other decade of Chicago's history. It was
likewise smaller than that of Detroit, 113-4%, and Cleveland,
42-1 %, Chicago's closest rivals in the Middle West. In 1920 the
negro pop. was 109,594, an increase of 148-5% over the pre-
ceding census. This influx of negroes, largely from the South,
was due to the great demand for unskilled labour, especially
in the packing industry, during the period of the World War
when the European immigration was slight. A shortage of
housing facilities for these negro labourers was one of the under-
lying causes of the race riots of 1919 in which a number of negroes
and whites were killed. Much of Chicago's growth in previous
decades had been due to immigration; this was sharply restricted
after 1914. By the annexation of suburban territory, the area
of Chicago (both land and water) was increased from 191-4 sq. m.
in 1910 to 200 sq. m. in 1920.
Industry and Commerce. The value of manufactures produced in Chicago increased enormously during the decade, the greatest advance being after 1914, as indicated by the following table com- piled by the Chicago Association of Commerce in which, however, the estimates for 1919 are probably too generous:
LEADING MANUFACTURERS
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Industry. AH industries Meat packing. Iron and steel Foundry products Men's clothing Printing and publishing Electrical machinery . Agricultural implements Railway cars . Plumbing, etc. Furniture Timber products . Bakery products . Soap
In 1918 the estimated total for all industries was $4,205,914,000. In 1914 Chicago had 10,114 manufacturing establishments employ- ing 386,794 persons, of whom 313,202 were wage earners. The cost of materials was $7 and the amount paid in wages $174,112,000. The Chicago packing plants increased their output while the World War was in progress, as the following figures show:
BEEF AND
No. cattle. 1905-6 1,988,955 1910-1 1,735,185 1914-5 1,442,870
The extent of the grain trade is indicated by the following tabula- tion of receipts (bus.) :
1913 1915 1918
Wheat .... 50,372,000 70,704,000 69,610,000
Corn 127,773,000 95,357,000 100,409,000
Oats 124,405,000 133,475,000 137,072,000
1919
(Estimated)
1914
(U.S. Census)
$6,500,000,000
$1,482,814,000
3,500,000,000 600,000,000 265,000,000 252,000,000
410,709,000 27,002,000 85,359,000 84,340,000
203,000,000 184,000,000
97,507,000 17,568,000
130,000,000 126,500,000
41,000,000 50,931,000
111,500,000 102,000,000
43,600,000
73,000,000 68,500,000
28,711,000 34,217,000
59,500,000
21,255,000
ID PORK PACKING IN CHICAGO
No. hogs. No. cattle 6,027,432 1915-6 1,962,048 6,294,251 1916-7 2,073,553 6,079,473 1917-8 2,411,750
No. hogs. 7,256,936 7,757,726 6,284,586
