was suppressed on account of a violent attack upon the appalling inefficiency of army medical services. With characteristic irony and decision two days later he issued l'Homme Enchainf, a title which was kept until he himself took office on Nov. 16 1917. Each day the censorship had to forge fresh fetters for chaining him. With all the skill of a surgeon Clemenceau laid bare the faults which too frequently charac- terized French war-leading. Poincare was the butt for many of his bitterest jibes, and by the savagery of his opinion Clemen- ceau perhaps shut himself out of office for so long a time. He fought government after government in his paper, but there the censorship put buttons on his foils. His voice, however, could not be stilled in the private proceedings of the Senate. At the beginning of the war he was president of the foreign affairs com- mittee, and when de Freycinet joined the Briand Ministry he also was elected president of the army committee of the Upper Chamber. These two posts gave him an observation post com- manding the whole field of war affairs, and his criticisms and suggestions on these committees were invaluable. M. Caillaux, in his defence, Mes Prisons, states that throughout the war two policies fought in France for supremacy his own tendency towards reconciliation with Germany, and peace without victory, to be made very largely at the expense of Great Britain; and the uncompromising faith of Clemenceau that France must fight to a finish, that it would be better for the world and for France that she should go down into dust rather than she should live in dishonourable partnership with injustice. Caillaux 's analysis is right in its main perspective, and he is also correct in stating that it was in the spring of 191 7 that Clemenceau won his victory. Then it was, without a doubt, that the clear revelation of the results of the doctrine of defeatism startled the people from the war-weariness into which they were slipping.
It was upon the wave of feeling then created that Clemenceau came into power. He had to fight not only Caillaux and his henchmen, who knew that with Clemenceau at the head of affairs their shrift would be short; he also had arrayed against him a legion of self-made enemies and the instinctive distrust of mediocre politicians for a man they knew to be their master. By July 1917, Clemenceau had driven Malvy from office by his charges of negligence in dealing with enemy propaganda. The position of the whole Ribot Ministry was made untenable, and the Painleve Government was the last barrier erected against Clemenceau. On Nov. 16 1917, he formed his Victory Cabinet. Nearly all the men in it were unknown, and Clemenceau could well have said: " Le Gouvernement, c'est moi."
The story of his ministry is told under FRANCE (History). A few facts and dates complete the record. He presided over the Paris Peace Conference, at which he was chief French delegate. On Feb. 19 1919 he was wounded by revolver shots fired at him as he was leaving his house in the rue Franklin, by a young anarchist, Emile Cottin (sentence of death, March 14, commuted to imprisonment for life). He allowed himself to be put forward as candidate for the presidency at the preliminary party caucus meeting on Jan. 16 1920, but, in view of the support given to M. Deschanel, he did not stand for election at the National As- sembly of Versailles, and then retired from all public activity. He afterwards traveled in Egypt and India. In June 1921 he was given a doctor's degree at Oxford University.
CLERK, SIR DUGALD (1854- ), Scottish civil engineer, was born at Glasgow March 31 1854. He was educated at the West of Scotland Technical College and the Andersonian College. He invented the Clerk cycle gas engine in 1877, improving it in 1878 (see 11.498), and became a recognized authority on internal combustion engines. He also interested himself in motor engineer-
ing, acting as judge at the automobile trials at Richmond in 1899 and 1900, and in 1908 becoming president of the Incorporated Institution of Automobile Engineers. During the World War he became director of engineering research to the Admiralty, and until 1919 was a member of the advisory committee
for aeronautics to the Air Ministry, and also of the air inven-
tions committee. In 1908 he was elected F.R.S. He was knighted
in 1917 in recognition of his work.
CLEVELAND (see 6.503), the largest city in Ohio and the fifth in the United States, had in 1920 a pop. of 796,841, a gain of 236,178 or 42-1% for the decade. The area in 1921 was 56-655
sq.m. as against 41 sq.m. in 1910. To the two viaducts across
the valley of the Cuyahoga river were added three others, of
which the most noteworthy is the High Level bridge, connecting
Superior avenue on the east with Detroit avenue on the west.
Its central span is 591 ft. long and 96 ft. above water, permitting
the tallest masts of lake shipping to pass. The total length, with
approaches, is 5,630 ft. and its cost was $5,407,000.
The centre of retail trade moved steadily eastward, crowding out the large houses with spacious grounds which had made Euclid avenue famous. New residential sections were developed, especially near Wade park and on the heights east of the city. Noteworthy additions were made to Cleveland architecture in the county court house and the city hall (of the uncompleted " Group " plan) ; in office buildings like the Engineers, the Illumi- nating, the Leader-News, and the Hanna buildings; in the " Plain Dealer " newspaper building; in the Cleveland Trust Co.'s bank building; in the Museum of Art; and in churches, the Church of the Covenant (Presbyterian), St. Agnes (Catholic), Euclid Avenue Temple (Jewish), and the Amasa Stone memorial chapel of Adelbert College.
The schools were reorganized in 1917 as a result of a " survey." Significant features were the development of junior high schools, of which there were in 1921 sixteen, and the effective establishment of departmental supervision to coordinate, standardize, and improve the work in each study. The cost of instruction in 1919 was $4,383,- 924. The Normal school, now the Cleveland school of education, was affiliated with Western Reserve University. To the university were added schools of pharmacy and of applied social science, and a department of religious education. In 1920-1 the university had 243 instructors and 2,027 students. Of other institutions of higher education, Case school of applied science had 67 instructors and 690 students, St. Ignatius College 26 instructors and 560 students, the Cleveland school of art 17 instructors and 547 students. The most important addition to the educational and artistic life of the community was the Museum of Art, located in Wade park. The building, of beautiful classical design, and admirably adapted to its uses, was completed in 1916. By reason of collections already made and additional gifts, the museum at once took high rank. Its direc- tors have sought through classes, lectures, and special exhibitions, to make it a power in popular education and to coordinate its work with that of the schools and colleges. The musical development of the city was stimulated by the creation of a symphony orchestra.
In its charities Cleveland has carried far the principle of co- operation, seeking to obviate through a welfare federation the waste in soliciting contributions. In 1919 and 1920 Community Chests were organized, and sums aggregating $4,000,000 and $4,500,000 were subscribed in " drives," to meet the needs of all community activities, not only charities, but also Red Cross, Y.M.C.A. and Y.W.C.A., Knights of Columbus, etc. The Cleveland Founda- tion was created in 1914, becoming the model for similar institutions in other cities. Its purpose was to enable a competent commission, renewable in part each year, to utilize a portion of funds entrusted to it in inquiries on the best methods of furthering the interests of the community, and, when the funds became large enough, to apply their income directly to schemes of betterment. Under its auspices were conducted in 1916 an educational survey at a cost of $50,000, a survey for a community recreation programme in 1920, and a survey of the administration of justice in 1921.
Cleveland is the seat of a federal reserve bank. Its two largest banks were in 1921 the Union Trust Co., formed that year by the consolidation of several older banks, and the Cleveland Trust Company. In the same year the city still retained its position as the greatest ore market in the world and also led in many steel products.
The increase in automobile production in the decade closing in 1914 was 486%. The total value of all products in 1914 was $352,531,000 compared with $172,115,101 in 1905. Harbour facilities were developed by the completion of the Government breakwater, 51 m. long. Passenger steamship service was transferred to a new 5 ac. pier on the lake front, built at a cost of $500,000.
In accordance with authority conferred by the home-rule amendment of the state constitution, a charter, submitted by a special commission, was accepted by the citizens on July I 1913. Under its provisions the mayor and the 26 councilmen are the only elected officials. Nominated by petition, all candidates appear on tickets without party designation. Heads of departments and divisions are appointed by the mayor; all other officials are appointed according to the merit system.
The city added to its waterworks a filtration plant, with a total capacity of 150,000 gal. a day. Water is drawn through tunnels from a submerged crib about 5 m. from shore.
