232 AFGHANISTAN [BOTANY. duced in the (independent) territory of Bajaur, north-west of Peshawar, from magnetic iron sand, and is exported. Kabul is chiefly supplied from the Permuli (or Farmuli) district, between the Upper Kurram and Gomal, where it is said to be abundant. Iron ore is most abundant near the passes leading to Bamian, and in other parts of Hindu Kush. Copper ore from various parts of Afghanistan has been seen, but it is nowhere worked. Lead is found, e.g., in Upper Bangash (Kurram district), and in the Shinwari country (also among the branches of Safed Koh), and in the Kakar country. There are reported to be rich lead mines near Herat scarcely worked. Lead, with antimony, is found near the Arghand-ab, 32 miles north-west of Kala t-i-Ghilzai ; in the Wardak hills, 24 miles north of Ghazni ; in the Ghorband valley, north of Kabul ; and in the Afridi country, near our frontier. Most of the lead used, however, conies from the Hazara country, where the ore is described as being gathered on the surface. An ancient mine of great extent and elabo rate character exists at Feringal, in the Ghorband valley. Antimony is obtained in considerable quantities at Shah- Maksud, about 30 miles north of Kandahar. Silicate of zinc in nodular fragments comes from the Zhob district of the Kakar country. It is chiefly used by cutlers for polishing. Sulphur is said to be found at Herat, dug from the soil in small fragments, but the chief supply comes from the Hazara country, and from Pirkisri, on the confines of Seistan, where there would seem to be a crater, or fuma- role. Sal-ammoniac is brought from the same place. Gypsum is found in large quantities in the plain of Kan dahar, being diig out in fragile coralline masses from near the surface. Coal (perhaps lignite) is said to be found in Zurmat (between the Upper Kurram and the Gomal) and near Ghazni. Nitre abounds in the soil over all the southwest of Afghanistan, and often affects the water of the Mrez, or subterranean canals. VEGETABLE KINGDOM. l The characteristic distribution of vegetation on the mountains of Afghanistan is worthy of attention. The great mass of it is confined to the main ranges and their immediate offshoots, whilst on the more distant and terminal prolongations it is almost entirely absent ; in fact, these are naked rock and stone. Take, for example, the Safed Koh. On the alpine range itself and its immediate branches, at a height of 6000 to 10,000 foet, we have abundant growth of large forest trees, among which conifers are the most noble and prominent, such as Ccdrus Dcodara, Abies excelfsri,, Pinus longifolia, P. Pinaster, P. Pincn (the edible pine), and the larch. We have also the yew, the hazel, juniper, walnut, wild peach, and almond. Growing under the shade of these are several varieties of rose, honeysuckle, currant, gooseberiy, haw thorn, rhododendron, and a luxuriant herbage, among which the ranunculus family is important for frequency and number of genera. The lemon and wild vine are also here met with, but are more common on the northern mountains. The walnut and oak (ever green, holly-leaved, and kermes) descend to the secondary heights, where they become mixed with alder, ash, khinjak, Arbor-vita;, juniper, with species of Astragalus, &c. Here also are Indigofcrcv and dwaif laburnum. Lower again, and down to 3000 feet, we have wild olive, species of rock-rose, wild privet, acacias and mimosas, barberry, and Zizy- phus; and in the eastern ramifications of the chain, Ckamcerops humilis (which is applied to a variety of useful pxirposes), Biynonia or trumpet flower, sissu, Salvadora persica, verbena, acanthus, varieties of Gcsnerce. The lowest terminal ridges, especially towards the west, are, as has been said, naked in aspect. Their scanty vegetation is almost wholly herbal ; shrubs are only occasional ; trees almost non existent. Labiate, composite, and umbelliferous plants are most common. Ferns and mosses are almost confined to the higher ranges 1 flhiefly from Bellew. In the low brushwood scattered over portions of the dreary plains of the "Khorasan" table-lands, we find leguminous thorny plants of the papilionaceous sub-order, such as camel-thorn (Hcdysarum Alhagi), Astragalus in several varieties, spiny rest-harrow (Oiumit spinosa), the fibrous roots of which often serve as a tooth-brush ; plants of the sub-order Mimosecc, as the sensitive mimosa ; a plant of the Rue family, called by the natives lipdd ; the common worm wood ; also certain orchids, and several species of Salsola. The rue and wormwood are in general use as domestic medicines the- former for rheumatism and neuralgia ; the latter in fever, debility, and dyspepsia, as well as for a vermifuge. The lipad, owing to its heavy nauseous odour, is believed to keep off evil spirits. In some places, occupying the sides and hollows of ravines, are found the rose bay (Ncrium Oleander), called in Persian khar-zarah, or uss- bane, the wild laburnum, and various Indigoferce. In cultivated districts the chief trees seen are mulberry, willow, poplar, ash, and occasionally the plane ; but these are due to man s planting. Uncultivated Product* of Value. One of the most important of these is the gum-resin of Narthex assafcetida, which grows abun dantly in the high and dry plains of Western Afghanistan, espe cially between Kandahar and Herat. The depot for it is Kandahar, whence it finds its way to India, where it is much used as a condi ment. It is not so used in Afghanistan, but the Seistan people eat the green stalks of the plant preserved in brine. The collection of the gum-resin is almost entirely in the hands of the Kakar clan of Afghans. In the highlands of Kabul edible rhubarb is an important local luxury. The plants grow wild in the mountains. The bleached rhubarb, which has a very delicate ilavour, is altered by covering the young leaves, as they sprout from the soil, with loose stones or an empty jar. The leaf-stalks are gathered by the neighbouring hill people, and carried down for sale. Bleached and unbleached rhubarb are both largely consumed, both raw and cooked. The walnut and edible pine-nut are both wild growths, which are exported. The sanjU (JSlceagnus orientals), common on the banks of water courses, furnishes an edible fruit. An orchis found in the moun tains yields the dried tuber which affords the nutritious mucilage called salep; a good deal of this goes to India. Pistacia khinjak affords a mastic. The fruit, mixed with its resin, is used for food by the Achakzais in Southern Afghanistan. The true pistachio is found only on the northern frontier ; the nuts are imported from Badakhshan and Kunduz. Mushrooms and other fungi are largely used as food, especially by the Hindus of the towns, to whom they supply a substitute for meat. Manna, of at least two kinds, is sold in the bazaars. One, called turanjb tn, appears to exude, in small round tears, from the camel- thorn, and also from the dwarf tamarisk ; the other, sir-kasht, in large grains and irregular masses, or cakes, with bits of twig im bedded, is obtained from a tree which the natives call siah chob- (black wood), thought by Bellew to be a Fraxinus or Ornns. AGRICULTURE. In most parts of the country there are two harvests, as generally in India. One of these, called by the Afghans bahdrak, or the spring crop, is sown in the end of autumn, and reaped in summer. It consists of wheat, barley, and a variety of lentils. The other, called ptiizah or tirrndi, the. autumnal, is sown in the end of spring, and reaped in autumn. It consists of rice, varieties of millet and sorghum, of maize, Phaseolus Mungo, tobacco, beet, turnips, &c. The loftier regions have but one har vest. Wheat is the staple food over the greater part of the country. Ifice is largely distributed, but is mo.st abundant in Swat (independent), and best in Peshawar (British). It is also the chief crop in Kurram. In much of the eastern mountainous country Idjra (Holcus spicatus) is the chief grain. Most English and Indian garden-stuffs are culti vated; turnips in some places very largely, as cattle food. The growth of melons, water-melons, and other cucurbi- taceous plants is reckoned very important, especially near towns ; and this crop counts for a distinct harvest. Sugar-cane is grown only in the rich plains; and though cotton is grown in the warmer tracts, most of the cotton cloth is imported. Madder is an important item of the spring crop in Ghazni and Kandahar districts, and generally over the west, and supplies the Indian demand. It is said to be
very profitable, though it takes three years to mature.
