804 ANATOMY [HISTORY. The third exhibits the pineal body (crw/m KwvoeiSes) or conarium, concealed by <i membrane with numerous veins, meaning that part of the plexus which is now known by the name of velum interpositum, and a complete view of the ventricles. The fourth unfolds the third ventricle (TIS aXf] rpiTij KoiAia), the communication between the two lateral ones, the arch-like body (<r/m i^aAiSoecSts) fornix, and the passage from the third to the fourth ventricle. In the fifth he gives an accurate description of the relations of the third and fourth ventricle, of the situation of the two pairs of eminences, nates (yXovra) and testes (SiSu/w a or opx et ?)> the scolecoid or worm-like process, anterior and posterior, and lastly the linear furrow, called by Herophilus calamus scriptorius. In the account of the thoracic organs equal accuracy may be recognised. He distinguishes the pleura by the name of inclosing membrane (vfifjv {iTre^w/cws, membrana succingens), and remarks its similitude in structure to that of the peritoneum, and the covering which it affords to all the organs. The pericardium also he describes as a membran ous sac with a circular basis corresponding to the base of the heart, and a conical apex ; and after an account of the tunics of the arteries and veins, he speaks shortly of the lung, and more at length of the heart, which, however, he takes some pains to prove not to be muscular, because it is harder, its fibres are differently arranged, and its action is incessant, whereas that of muscle alternates with the state of rest ; he gives a good account of the valves and of the vessels ; and notices especially the bony ring formed in the heart of the horse, elephant, and other large animals. The description of the abdominal organs, and of the kidneys and urinary apparatus, is still more minute, and in general accurate. Our limits, however, do not permit us to give any abstract of them ; and it is sufficient in general to say that Galen gives correct views of the arrangement of the peritoneum and omentum, and distin guishes accurately the several divisions of the alimentary canal and its component tissues. In the liver, which he allows to receive an envelope from the peritoneum, he admits, in imitation of Erasistratus, a proper substance or parenchyma, interposed between the vessels, and capable of removal by suitable dissection. His description of the organs of generation is rather brief, and is, like most of his anatomical sketches, too much blended with physiological dogmas. This short sketch may communicate some idea of the condition of anatomical knowledge in the days of Galen, who indeed is justly entitled to the character of rectifying and digesting, if not of creating, the science of anatomy among the ancients. Though evidently confined, perhaps entirely by the circumstances of the times, to the dissection of brute animals, so indefatigable and judicious was he in the mode of acquiring knowledge, that many of his names and distinctions are still retained with advantage in the writings of the moderns. Galen was a practical anatomist, and not only describes the organs of the animal body from actual dissection, but gives ample instructions for the proper mode of exposition. His language is in general clear, his style as correct as in most of the authors of the same period, and his manner is animated. Few passages in early science are indeed so interesting as the description of the process for demonstrating the brain and other internal organs which is given by this patient and enthusiastic observer of nature. To some it may appear absurd to speak of anything like good anatomical descrip tion in an author who writes in the Greek language, or anything like an ^interesting and correct manner in a writer who flourished at a period when taste was depraved or extinct and literature corrupted, when the philosophy of Antoninus and the mild virtues of Aurelius could do little to soften the iron sway of Lucius Verus and Cora- modus; but the habit of faithful observation in Galen seems to have been so powerful that, in the description of material objects, his genius invariably rises above the circumstances of his age. Though not so directly con nected with this subject, it is nevertheless proper to mention that he appears to have been the first anatomist who can be said, on authentic grounds, to have attempted to discover the uses of organs by vivisection and experi ments on living animals. In this manner lie ascertained the position and demonstrated the action of the heart ; and he mentions two instances in which, in consequence of disease or injury, he had an opportunity of observing the motions of this organ in the human body. In short, without eulogis ing an ancient author at the expense of critical justice, or commending his anatomical descriptions as superior to those of the moderns, it must be admitted that the anatomical writings of the physician of Pergamus form a remarkable era in the history of the science ; and that by diligence in dissection and accuracy in description he gave the = science a degree of importance and stability which it has retained through the lapse of many centuries. The death of Galen, which took place at Pergamus in the ninetieth year of his age and the 193d of the Christian era, may be regarded as the downfall of anatomy in ancient times. After this period we recognise only two names of any celebrity in the history of the science those of Soranus and Oribasius, with the more obscure ones of Meletius and Theophilus, the latter the chief of the imperial guard of Heraclius. Soranus, who was an Ephesian, and flourished under the emperors Trajan and Hadrian, distinguished himself by his researches on the female organs of generation. He appears to have dissected the human subject ; and this perhaps is one reason why his descriptions of these parts are more copious and more accurate than those of Galen, who derived his knowledge from the bodies of the lower animals. He denies the existence of the hymen, but describes accurately the clitoris. Soranus the anatomist must be distinguished from the physician of that name, who was also a native of Ephesus. Oribasius, who was born at Pergarmis, is said to have Oribasi been at once the friend and physician of the Emperor Julian, and to have contributed to the elevation of 361-3C that apostate to the imperial throne. For this he appears to have suffered the punishment of a temporary exile under Valens and Valentinian ; but was soon recalled, and lived in great honour till the period of his death. By Le Clerc, Oribasius is regarded as a compiler; and indeed 357. his anatomical writings bear so close a correspondence with those of Galen that the character is not altogether ground less. In various points, nevertheless, he has rendered the Galenian anatomy more accurate ; and he has distinguished himself by a good account of the salivary glands, which were overlooked by Galen. To the same period generally is referred the Anatomical Introduction of an anonymous author, first published in 1G1S by Lauremberg, and more recently by Bernard. It is to be regarded as a compilation formed on the model of Galen and Oribasius. The same character is applicable to the treatises of Meletius and Theophilus. The decline indicated by these languid efforts soon sunk into a state of total inactivity ; and the unsettled state of society during the latter ages of the Eoman empire was extremely unfavourable, to the successful cultivation of science. The sanguinary conflicts in which the southern countries of Europe were repeatedly engaged with their northern neighbours, between the second and eighth cen turies, tended gradually to estrange their minds from
scientific pursuits ; and the hordes of barbarians by which
