secretary. The constitution, as is evident, was purely aristocratical, and unlike that of the French Academy, in which the principle of equality among the members was never violated. Science was not yet strong enough to dispense with the patronage of the great. The two leading spirits of the academy at this period were Clairaut and Réaumur. Clairaut was the first to explain capillary attraction, and predicted within a few days of the correct time the return of Halley's comet. His theory on the figure of the earth was only superseded by Laplace's Mécanique Céleste. Réaumur was principally distinguished by his practical discoveries, and a thermometer in common use at the present day bears his name.
To trace the subsequent fortunes of this academy would far exceed our limits, being equivalent to writing the history of the rise and progress of science in France. It has reckoned among its members Laplace, Buffon, Lagrange, D Alembert, Lavoisier, and Jussieu, the father of modern botany. Those of our readers who wish for further information we would refer to M. Alfred Maury's excellent history.
On 21st December 1792, the old Academy of Sciences met for the last time. Many of the members fell by the guillotine, many were imprisoned, more reduced to indigence. The aristocracy of talent was almost as much detested and persecuted by the Revolution as that of rank.
In 1795 the Convention decided on founding an Institute, which was to replace all the academies. The first class of the Institute corresponded closely to the old academy. See Institute.
In 1816 the Academy was reconstituted as a branch of the Institute. The new academy has reckoned among its members, besides many other brilliant names, Carnot the engineer, the physicians Fresnel, Ampère, Arago, Biot, the chemists Gay-Lussac and Thénard, the zoologists G. Cuvier and the two Geoffrey Saint-Hilaires.
The French had also considerable academies in most of their large towns. Montpellier, for example, had a Royal Academy of Sciences, founded in 1706 by Louis XIV., on nearly the same footing as that at Paris, of which, indeed, it was in some measure the counterpart. It was reconstituted in 1847, and organised under three sections—medicine, science, and letters. It has continued to publish annual reports of considerable value. Toulouse also had an academy under the denomination of Lanternists; and there were analogous institutions at Nîmes, Arles, Lyons, Dijon, Bordeaux, and other places. Of these several, we believe, are still in existence, if not in activity.
Before passing on to German academies, we may here notice a private scientific and philosophical society, the precursor of the French Academy of Sciences. It does not appear to have had any distinguishing name; but the promoter of it was Eusebius Renaudot, Counsellor and Physician in Ordinary to the King of France, and Doctor Regent of the Faculty of Physic at Paris, by whom a full account of its conferences was published, translated into English by G. Havers, 1664. In the preface it is said to be "a production of an assembly of the choicest wits of France." We will quote a few of the subjects of these discussions in order to show the character of the society:—"Why the loadstone draws iron;" "Whether the soul's immortality is demonstrable by natural reason;" " Of the little hairy girl lately seen in this city." On subjects of popular superstition their views were far in advance of the time. Of judicial astrology it is said, "Why should we seek in heaven the causes of accidents which befall us if we can find them on earth?" Of the philosopher's stone—"This most extravagant conceit, that it is the panacea, joined to the other absurdities of that chimerical art, makes us believe that it is good for nothing but to serve for imaginary consolation to the miserable."
Germany.—The Collegium Curiosum was a scientific society, founded by J. C. Sturm, professor of mathematics and natural philosophy in the University of Altorff, in Franconia, in 1672, on the plan of the Accademia del Cimento. It originally consisted of 20 members, and continued to flourish long after the death of its founder. The early labours of the society were devoted to the repetition (under varied conditions) of the most notable experiments of the day, or to the discussion of the results. Two volumes of proceedings were published by Sturm in 1676 and 1685 respectively. The Programma Invitatorium is dated June 3, 1672; and Sturm therein urges that, as the day of disputatious philosophy had given way to that of experimental philosophy, and as, moreover, scientific societies had been founded at Florence, London, and Rome, it would therefore seem desirable to found one in Germany, for the attainment of which end he requests the co-operation of the learned.
The work of 1676, entitled Collegium Experimentale sive Curiosum, commences with an account of the diving-bell, "a new invention;" next follow chapters on the camera obscura, the Torricellian experiment, the air-pump, micro scope, telescope, &c. The two works have been pronounced by a competent authority[1] to constitute a nearer approach to a text-book of the physics of the period than any preceding work.
The Royal Academy of Sciences at Berlin was founded in 1700 by Frederic I. after Leibnitz' comprehensive plan, but was not opened till 1711. Leibnitz was the first presi dent. Under Maupertuis, who succeeded him, it did good service. Its present constitution dates from January 24, 1812. It is divided into four sections—physical, mathematical, philosophical, and historical. Each section is under a paid secretary elected for life; each secretary presides in turn for a quarter of a year. The members are 1st,—Regular members who are paid; these hold general meetings every Thursday, and sectional meetings every Monday. 2d, Foreign members, not to exceed 24 in number. 3d, Honorary members and correspondents. Since 1811 it has published yearly, Mémoires de l'Académie Royale des Sciences et Belles Lettres à Berlin. For its scientific and philosophical attainments the names of W. and A. v. Humboldt, Ideles, Savigny, Schleiermacher, Bopp, and Ranke, will sufficiently vouch.
The Academy of Sciences at Mannheim was established by Charles Theodore, Elector Palatine, in the year 1755. The plan of this institution was furnished by Schæpflin, according to which it was divided into two classes, the historical and physical. In 1780 a sub-division of the latter took place into the physical, properly so-called, and the meteorological. The meteorological observations are published separately, under the title of Epheinerides Societatis Meteorologicæ Palatinæ. The historical and physical memoirs are published under the title of Acta Academiæ Theodoro-Palatinæ.
The Electoral Bavarian Academy of Sciences at Munich, was established in 1759, and publishes its memoirs under the title of Abhandlungen der Baierischen Akademie. Soon after the Elector of Bavaria was raised to the rank of king, the Bavarian government, by his orders, directed its attention to a new organisation of the Academy of Sciences of Munich. The design of the king was, to render its labours more extensive than those of any similar institution in Europe, by giving to it, under the direction of the ministry, the immediate superintendence over all the establishments for public instruction in the kingdom of Bavaria. The Privy-Councillor Jacobi, a man of most excellent character, and of considerable scientific attainments, was appointed president.
- ↑ Mr G. F. Rodwell, in the Chemical News, June 21, 1867.
