more unreservedly by M. Henri de l’Epinois, in an essay entitled “Galilee, son I'roces, sa Condemnation,” published in 1867 in the linear. (lrs Questions 11ist0riqaes. lie was followed by M. Karl von Geblcr. who, in an able and exhaustive but somewhat pre- 'udiced work, Galileo Galilei and die Remisch Gloria (Stuttgart, 876). sought to impeach the authenticity of a document of prime importance in the trial of 1633. He has, however, been Victoriously answered by Signor Domenico Berti, in Il Processo originals (Ii Galileo Galilci (Rome, 1876), and by M. de I'Epinois, with Lcs Pieces (la Procés dc Galiléc (Rome, Paris, 1877). The touching letters of Galileo's eldest daughter, Sister Maria Celeste, to her father were printed in 1864 by Professor Carlo Arduini, in a pub- lication entitled La Primogcnita (li Galileo Galilci. See also M. Th. Henri Martin’s excellent biography, Galilee, lcs Droits dc la Science ct la Aléthodc cles Sciences Physiqacs, Paris, 1868 ; and the anonymous Private Life of Galileo, London, 1870.
GALITCH, or Halicz, a town of Russia, at the head of a district in the government of Kostroma, 80 miles N.E. of Kostroma, in 57° 15’ N. lat. and 42° 56’ E. long, on the low south-eastern shore of Galitch Lake. Among its public buildings are a hospital, a poorhouse opened in 1855, about d-S churches, and a convent of the third class. The chief occupation of the inhabitants is the manufacture of leather and gloves ; and the fisheries of the lake yield about 30,000 rubles per annum, and give employment to about 400 fishermen, whose rights are secured by ancient charters. At the annual fair a considerable trade is done in woollen and cotton goods, earthenware, and miscellaneous articles. In 1860 the population was 6536 ; but in the St Pcterslmrg Calendar for 1878 it is given at 5620.
GALL, Franz Joseph (1758–1828), anatomist, physiologist, and founder of phrenology, was born at Tiefenbrunn near 1’forzheim, Baden, on the 9th of March 1758. After completing the usual literary course at Baden and Bruchsal, he began the study of medicine under Hermann at Strasburg, whence, attracted by the names of Van Swieten and Stoll, he removed to Vienna in 1781. Having received his diploma, he began to practise as a physician there in 1785 ; but his energies were mainly devoted to the scientific investigation of problems which, even from boyhood, had been occupying his attention. At a comparatively early period he had formed a generalization which he believed to be a sound one, that in the human subject at least a powerful memory is invariably associated with prominent eyes ; and further observation had enabled him, as he thought, also to define the external characteristics indicative of special talents for painting, music, and the mechanical arts. Following out these researches, he gradually reached the strong personal conviction, not only that the talents and dispositions of men are dependent upon the functions of the brain, but also that they may be inferred with perfect exactitude and precision from the external appearances of the skull. Gall’s first appearance as an author was made in 1791, when he published the first two chapters of a (never completed) work entitled Picilosopltisclt-medicinische l 'ntersuclzngen iiber Natur a. Kanst i-m lrranl'en u. gcsunclm Z astmulc (les Afensclien. The first public notice of his inquiries in cranioscopy, however, was in the form of a familiar letter addressed to a friend, which appeared in Wieland’s Deutsclier Alcrcar in 1798 3 but two years before this Gall had commenced giving private courses of phreno— 10gica1 lectures in Vienna, where his doctrines soon attracted general attention, and met with increasing success until, in 1802, they were interdicted by the Government on the ground that they were dangerous to religion. This step on the part of the authorities had the effect of greatly stimu- lating public curiosity and increasing Gall’s celebrity. In March 1805 he finally left Vienna, in company with his friend and associate Spurzheim, and made a tour through Germany, in the course of which he lectured in Berlin, Dresden, Magdeburg, and several of the university towns. These expositions, which he knew how to make popular and attractive, were much resorted to by the public, and excited considerable controversy in the scientific world. He had almost reached the zenith of his fame when, in 1807, he repaired to Paris and established himself there as a medical practitioner, at the same time continuing his activity as a lecturer and writer. In 1808 appeared his Introduction an cours de physiologic du cervean, which was followed in 1809 by the RC’CItC’I'L'st sur le systems ncrvcux en général, et sar celai (lu cerveaa en particalier (originally laid before the Institute of France in March 1808), and in 1810 by the first instalment of the Anatomic et Physiologic (la systéme nerveax on général, et (la ceroeau en particulier, avec (les observations sar la possibilité (le reconnaitre plusiears dispositions intellectualles et nzorales dc l’lzomme st ([68 an imaux par la configarat ion (le lem‘s tétes. The Rec/inches, and the first two volumes of the Anatomic, bear the conjoint names of Gall and Spurzheim. The latter work was com- pleted in 1819, and appeared in a second edition of six 8vo volumes shortly afterwards (1822—25). In 1811 he replied t) a charge of Spinozism 0r atheism, which had been strongly urged against him in certain quarters, by a treatise entitled Des dispositions innées de l’clme et de l’esprit, which he afterwards incorporated with his greater work. In 1819 he became anaturalized French subject, but his efforts two years afterwards to obtain admission to the Academy of Sciences, although supported by Geoffroy St Hilaire, were unsuccessful. In 1823 he visited London with the intention of giving a series of phrenological lectures, but was dis— appointed of the reception he had anticipated, and speedily abandoned his plans. He continued to lecture and practise in Paris until the beginning of 1828, when he was disabled by an apoplectic seizure. His death took place at Montronge near Paris, on the 22d of August 1828. The Anatomic has been translated into English by Lewis (Boston, U.S., 1835).
GALLAND, Antoine (1646–1715), Orientalist and archaeologist, the first European translator of the Arabian Nights, was born in 1646 at Rollot, in the department of Somme. The completion of his school education at Noyon was followed by a brief apprenticeship to a trade, from which, however, he soon escaped, to pursue his linguistic studies at Paris. After having been employed for some time in making a catalogue of the Oriental manuscripts at the Sorbonne, he was, in 1670, attached to the French embassy at Constantinople; and in 1673 he also accom- panied his chief (De Nointel) to Syria and the Levant, where he availed himself of the opportunity to copy a great number of inscriptions, and also to sketch, in some cases even to remove, historical monuments. After a brief visit to France, where his collection of antiquities attracted some attention, Galland returned to the Levant in 1676 ; and in 1679 he undertook a third voyage, being commissioned by the French East India Company to collect for the cabinet of Colbert 3 on the expiry of this commission he was instructed by the Government to continue his reSearches, and had the title of “ antiquary to the king ” conferred upon him. During his prolonged residences abroad he acquired a thorough knowledge of the Arabic, Turkish, and Persian languages and literatures, which, on his final return to France, enabled him to render valuable assistance to Thevenot, the keeper of the royal library, and to D’Herbelot. After their deaths he lived for some time at Caen under the roof of Foucault the intendant, himself no mean archzcologist; and there he began the publication (1704–17) of Les Afille et Une Knits, a trans- lation which excited immense interest during the time of its appearance, and which is still the standard French translation (last edition 1872). In 1701 Galland had been admitted into the Academy of Inscriptions, and in 1709 he was appointed to the chair of Arabic in the College de France. He continued to discharge the duties of this post until his death, which took place February 17, 1715.
