Page:Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition, v. 10.djvu/56

are gathered before the frosts set in, and are exposed to steam to kill the insects.^[1]

Chinese galls examined by Yiedt^[2] yielded 72 per cent. of tannin, and less mueilage than Aleppo galls. Sew-rail other varieties of galls are produced by Aphides on species of I’istaciu.

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M. J. Lichtenstein has established the fact that from the egg of the Aphis of Pistachio galls, Anoplcura lentisci, is hatched an apterous insect (the gall-founder), which gives birth to young Aphides (emigrants), and that these, having acquired wings, fly to the roots of certain grasses (Bromus slerilis and [lordcum vnlgurc), and by budding underground give rise to several generations of apterous insects, whence finally comes a winged brood (the pupifera). These last issuing from the ground fly to the Pistachio, and on it deposit their pupae. From the pupae, again, are developed sexual individuals, the females of which lay fecundated eggs productive of gall-founders, thus recomnlencing the biological cycle (see C'ompt. Bend, Nov. 18, 1878, p. 7822, quoted in Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist, 1879, p.174).

Fm. 2.—a, Chinese gali (half natural size); b. ditto. broken, showing thin-walled cavity; c, Japanese gall (natural size).

Of other insects which have been recognized as gall- makers there are, among the Coleoptera, certain Curculionids (gall—weevils), and species of the exotic Sugridce and Lamiadce, and an American beetle, iS’aperda inornata (C'erambyciclce), which forms the pseudo-galls of Salim longirblia and Populus any-alum, or cottonwood. Among the Lepidoptera are gall-forming species belonging to the Tineidce, .Egeriiche, Tortricida’, and Pterophoriclce. The larva of a New Zealand moth, JIorova sulfasciata, \Valk. (Oacoé'cia gallicolens), of the family Drepanulidce, causes the stem of a creeping plant, on the pith of which it apparently subsists, to swell up into a fusiform gall.^[3]

Mite-galls, or acarocecidia, are abnormal growths of the leaves of plants, produced by microscopic Acaridea of the genus Phytoptus (gall-mites), and consist of little tufts of hairs, or of thickened portions of the leaves, usually most hypertrophied on the upper surface, so that the lower is drawn up into the interior, producing a bursiform cavity. Mite-galls occur on the sycamore, pear, plum, ash, alder, vine, mulberry, and many other plants; and formerly, e.g., the gall known as Erineum quercinum, on the leaves of Quercus Ccrris, were taken for cryptogamic structures. The lime-leaf “nail—galls" of Phytoptus til ice closely resemble the “ trumpea galls” formed on American vines by a species of Ceciclomyia.^[4]Certain minute Nematoid worms, as Anguillula scandens, which infests the ears of wheat, also give rise to galls.

Besides the larva of the gall-maker, or the householder, galls usually contain inquilines or lodgers, the larvae of what are termed guest-flies or cuckoo-flies. Thus the galls of 03/21:)»; and its allies are inhabited by members of other cynipideous genera, as ,S'ynergus, A mblg/notus, and Synophrus ; and the pine-cone-like gall of Suha- strobiloitles, as Walsh has shown,^[5] is made by a large species of Cccidomyiu, “lllcli inhabits the heart of the mass, the numerous smaller ceei- domyidous larvae in its outer part being more inquilines. In many instances the lodgers are not of the same order of insects as the gall-makers. Some saw-flies, for example, are inquilinous in the galls of gall-gnats, and 801110 gall-gnats in the galls of saw-flies. Again, galls may atl'ord harbour to insects which are not essentially gall—feeders, as in the ease of the Curculio beetle C'ouoinu'lulius nenuphur, libst., of which one brood eats the fleshy part of the plum and peach, and another lives in the “black knot” of the plum-tree, re- garded by “'alsh as probably a true cecidouiyidous gall. The same authority (loc. cit, p. 5'50) mentions a willox '-gall which provides no less than sixteen insects with food and pre- tcction ; these are preyed upon by about eight others, so that altogether some twenty-four insects, representing eight orders, are dependent for their existence on what to the Com- mon observer appears to be nothing but “an unmeaning mass of leaves.” Among the numerous insects parasitic on the inhabitants of galls are hymeuopterous flies of the family I’roclotrypidw, and of the family Chalcididw, €.g., Callimomc regius, the larva of which preys on the larvze of both ('yuijs glutinosa, and its lodgcr biz/neiyus faciulis. The oak-apple often contains the larvae of Braconidce and Ichncumoniclw, which Von Schlechtendal (lac. sup. cit., p. 33) considers to be parasites not on the owner of the gall, Andricus termin- alis, but on inquilinous Tortricidce. Birds are to be in- cluded among the enemies of gall-insects. Oak-galls, for example, are broken open by the titmouse in order to obtain the grub within, and the “button—galls” of il'cm'otcrus numismaiis, Oliv., are eaten by pheasants.

On galls and their makers and inhabitants see further—J. T. C. Ratzeburg, Die Forst-Inscclcn, Th. iii. pp. 53 391., Berlin, 1844; '1‘. 11'. Harris, Insects injurious to Vegetation, Boston, U.S., 2d ed., 1852; C. L. Koch, Dll‘PfldflZCfllfillSG.‘ljlhillfln, Nuremberg, 1854; T. IIartig, Die Familicn der Blattwcspcn mul Ilolzwcspcn, Berlin, 1860; \Valsh, “ On the Insects, (.‘cleopterous, Hymenopterons, and hip- terous, inhabiting the Galls of certain species of Willow,”1’ruc. Eat. Soc. Philadelphia, iii., 1863—4, pp. 543—644, and vi., 1866—7, pp. 223—288; T. A. Marshall, “ On some British Cynipidre," Iz'lzt. lllonlh. .1109” iv. pp. 6—8, &e.; H. 1V. Kidd and Albert Miiller, “ A List of Gall-Bearing British Plants,” {b., v. pp. 118 and 216 ; G. L. Mayr, Die mittclczn'opdischcn Eiehcngallcn in "’07! and 13th, Vienna, 1870—71, and the translation of that work, with notes, in the Eidmnologist, vols. vii. sq.; also, by the same author, “ l)ie Ein- miethler der mitteleurop'aisehen Eichengallen,” Vc-rhmull. d. 200109.- bot. Gcs. in lV—z'en, xxii. pp. 669—726; and “ Die europaisehen Toryrniden,” 2'b., xxiv. pp. 53-142 (abstracted in Cisluln Entomo- logica, i., Lond., 1869—76); F. LUw, “ Beitriige zur Kenntniss der Gallmiicken,” 1'b., pp. 143—162, and 321—328; J. E. von Bergen- stamm and P. LUW, “Synopsis Ceeidomyidarum,” ib., xxvi. pp. 1—104; Perris, Ann. Soc. Entom. dc France, 4th ser., vol. x. pp. 176—185; R. Osten-Sacken, “ On the North Ameriean Cecidomyidw," Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, vol. vi., 1867, p. 173 ; E. L. Tasehenberg, Entomologic fiir 0drtnc7' nnd Gao'lcnfrcu-ndrn, Leipsie, 1871; J. 1V. H. Trail], “ Scottish Galls,” Scottish Nqu- 7'alisl, i., 1871, pp. 123, &e.; Albert Miiller, “ British Gall Insects,” The .Enlomologist’s Annual for 1872, pp. 1—22; B. Altnm, Forst—zoologic, iii., “ Insecten,” pp. 250 sq., Berlin, 1874; J. 11. .Kfllllll-bach, Die Planzcn Fcimle aus dcr Classc tlcr Inset-ten, Stung, 1874; A. d’Arbois de J ubainville and J. Vesque, Les [Maladies dos Planks O'ultivées, pp. 98—105, Paris, 1878.

(f. h. b.)

GALLUPPI, Pasquale (1770–1846), a distinguished Italian philosopher, was born on 2d April 1770, at Tropes, in Calabria. He was of good family, and after con'.pletir__;r

his education at the academy of Tropea and the university of Naples he entered the public service, and was for many years employed in the office of the administration of finances. Altogether apart from academic influences he pursued his

favourite studies, and it was not till he had reached the age

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1. See E. Doubleday, Pharm. hum, 1st sen, vol. vii. p. 310; and Pereira, ib., vol. iii. p. 377.
2. Dinglcr's Palyl. Journ., ccxvi. p. 453; cf. supm Gallic Acid.
3. For figure and description see Zoology of the Erebiw and Terror, ii. pp. 46, 47, 1844—75.
4. On the mite-galls and their makers, see F. Low, “Beitriige zur Naturgesch. der Gallmilben (Phytoptus, Duj.)," Verhandl. (l. zoolog.- LI. 053. in Wien, xxiv., 1874, pp. 2-16, with plate; and “ Usher )1 ilhengallen (Acarocecidien) der Wiener-Gegend,” ib., pp. 495—508 ; Andrew Murray, Economic Entomology, .ipterrl, pp. 331—374, 1876 ; and F. A. W. ThOmas, Aeltcre uml ncue L’cobachtungcn fiber Phytopla- Cccizlien, Iialle, 1877.
5. I’rs-c. Eulomol. Soc. I'hilculelplu'u, iii., 1864, p. 549.