was estimated at 6,000,000 Idiots, a kilot being nearly 7-3 gallons; in 1876, 12,000,000. In I860 there were 2,287,645 stremmas i.e., 565,048 acres under cereal crops, which yielded 9,512,993 kilots of grain i.e., 1,165,807 quarters, or 2 quarters an acre.
Vineyards are numerous, but the wine is poor, with little body, and is ruined for European use by the resin put in to preserve it. All provinces produce wine, but the best is that of Santorin, which is shipped largely to Russia. There is still a Malvoisie wine, though it is no longer that which was once so celebrated under the name of Malmsey ; and the Kephissia wine of Attica and the red wine of Zante are in good repute. There has been a large increase in the number of vineyards, and a marked improvement in the manufac ture of wine since the kingdom began, and Greek wines have been of some commercial importance since 1858. In 1830 there were only 25,000 stremmas under vines ; there are now 700,000.
A grape peculiar to Greece is that of Corinth, which, from the place where it grows, is called the currant. It constitutes the largest export of Greece, and goes almost exclusively to England to make the national plum-pudding. Its cultivation has been largely increased of late. In 1820 only 10,000,000 ft were raised, and in 1831, after the destruction of the vines by Ibrahim Pasha, only 5,000,000 ft, but in 1851 there were 57,000,000 ft, and in 1876 195,000,000 ft, valued at 1,400,000. There are now 40,000 acres of ground under currants alone, and this probably cannot be much increased, for the Corinthian vine is fastidious, and grows only on the northern and western shores of the Morea, on some of the Ionian Islands, and at Mesolonghi, and nowhere else in Greece or in the world. The vines bear in their sixth year, but do not attain full perfection till their twelfth. The grapes are gathered in August, dried in the sun, and packed.
The olive and the mulberry are very important products of cultivation. The oil of Attica has still its ancient reputation. It is calculated that in Greece in 1876 there were 12,000,000 olive trees, which yielded 19,000,000 okes of oil. In 1834 there were only 2,300,000 trees, yielding 1,OOD,0<">0 okes. The mulberry grows best in the south of the Morea, and there the house of almost every peasant is given up in part to rearing the. silk-worm, the eggs being nestled in the bosoms of the women. There were in 1833 only 300,000 mulberry trees in Greece ; in 1876 there were 2,000,000.
A natural production of Greece of great importance is valonia, the husk of the acorn of the Quercus jEyilops, an oak of which con siderable forests exist in Arcadia, Attica, the island Zea, and other places. Valonia is valuable on account of the amount of tannin it contains, and is much exported to England and Italy for use in dyeing and tanning. Another species of oak, the Quercus coccif era, which grows largely on Mount Taygetus, breeds the insect called kermes, which, when dried, looks like a berry, and is used in dyeing the red fez of the country. Turpentine is obtained in large quantities from the pines of Cithaeron and elsewhere.
Cotton and tobacco are the only products whose cultivation is free from taxation, the exemption being made with a view to the encouragement of their cultivation. Cotton is now grown to a considerable extent, its culture having received a great impetus during the American civil war. It is produced particularly on the marshy lands of Levadia, and Phthiotis in northern Greece. In 1862 the produce was 28,537 quintals; in 1864, 193,615 quintals. The annual yield of tobacco is 4,000,000 okes. Opium, madder, and flax are grown in the northern parts of Greece.
Greece is rich in fruits. The figs of Attica have not degenerated, and they are produced to a considerable extent in other parts also, especially Messenia. In 1834 there were but 50,000 fig-trees ; in 1861, 300,000. Apricots, oranges, lemons, pomegranates, and citrons grow well in the islands, and the fruit trade might be largely increased.
Though there is much excellent timber in the Greek forests, it is practically useless from want of roads, so that it is cheaper to import wood from abroad. In 1860 there were 7,000,000 stremmas of land under forest, and it is estimated that now only 5,500,000 are so.
The herds are chiefly bred on the mountain pastures, and are mainly sheep and goats. Most of the cattle are used in agricultural labour. In 1865 the total number of sheep in the country subject to taxation was 1,778,729 ; of goats, 2,289,123 ; of cattle, 226,737 of which 168,927 were work oxen ; of horses, 69,787 ; of mules, 29,637 ; of asses, 64,051 ; of swine, 55,776 ; and of camels, 72. Cows milk and butter are considered unwholesome in Greece (Kruse, Hellas, . p. 368), and the butter and cheese in use are from ewes and goats milk. The honey of Greece is not equal to that of other countries ; even that of Hymettus, so famous in ancient days when honey was exceptionally prized, because men were ignorant of sugar, and which is still one of the best kinds in Greece, could not compete with French in the English market. P>ut over 35,000 worth of honey is produced in Greece every year, and goes chiefly to Turkey. There are extensive fisheries on some parts of the coasts.
The land taxis still the Turkish system of exacting a percentage Land generally a tenth of the gross produce of the land ; and though, tax, in the case of the vineyards, a money commutation, based on the planter s declaration, is coming into use, the tax is, as a rule, paid in kind. This system is rendered more objectionable by the tax being farmed out to private contractors. The cultivator cannot reap his crop, though it be ripe, till the day appointed by the tax collector, and he must cut it then, though it be green. When cut, he must carry the whole crop on pack animals (there being no roads for waggons), sometimes for miles, to the particular public threshing-floor which the collector fixes upon, and he must wait with it there till the collector can find time to see it threshed and take his tithe, which is often weeks, sometimes, it is said, even as as long as three months. Proposals for the abolition of this method of taxation have often been introduced into the chamber of deputies, but the matter has always been deferred till they should have a register of lands, which, however, they seem to take no steps to make.
When Capodistria assumed the government of Greece fifty years ago, he said there were two things he meant to give the nation, roads and education. The system of education has been very satisfactorily built up since that time, but its roads are still to make. We have no recent statistics on the subject, but Rangabe says that in 1867 nineteen roads had been made since the kingdom was established, with a total length of 380 kilometres ; and Watson, writing in 1872, complains that, from want of roads at that time, it cost more to carry grain from Marathon to Athens (25 miles) than to bring it from the Black Sea, while highly fertile tracts of country, not far from seaport towns, were left entirely uncultivated because of the expense of the transit of their produce. Every man in Greece is by law obliged to give at least three days labour in the year, or its equivalent in money, for road-making ; and a law was passed in 1876 to apply one-fifth of the proceeds from the sale of state lands to making roads.
Manufacturing industries are steadily advancing. According to a report issued in 1876 by Mansolas, director of the statistical bureau at Athens, there are in Greece 95 steam-mills and factories, with a total of 1967 horse-power ; the most important of these have been established since 1869. They include 35 flour-mills, 12 for cotton-weaving, 2 for cotton-spinning, 4 for ginning, 6 for sillk- weaving, 10 oil-milk, 9 for constructing machinery, 4 for making wines and spirits, 3 tanneries, 2 metal-foundries, 1 powder-mill, and 7 others of various kinds. Shipbuilding is carried on at the seaports. The Greeks excel in tailoring, confectionery, and embroidery. As an index to the industrial progress of the nation it may be noted that in the International Exhibition of 1851 there- were only 35 Greek exhibitors; in 1862, 295 ; and in 1878, 1000. Greece has established a scries of industrial exhibitions of its own, the new Olympic games, as they are termed, which a wealthy Greek left 3000 a year to found, which combine literary, scien tific, and athletic competitions with those of industry, and which occur, like the old Olympic games, every four years. The cotton industry is making decided progress. The annual export of raw cotton is diminishing, and its importation is increasing ; and, to encourage the trade, there is no duty on native cotton, unless exported, while the import duty on raw cotton was reduced in 1875. Leather is made chiefly at Syra.
The marble quarries of Pentclicus, Curyste, and Pares are important works. The coals of Eubœa are not much used, as their heat-giving capacity is small. The only mining operations in the country are those of the Laurium Company, which, by help of improved modern appliances, extracts treasure from the waste which the ancient workers of the mines threw away, and which has been roughly guessed to contain still 120,000 tons of had. The scoria} or refuse heaps of Laurium are dug up and carried on trucks, by a short line of rail belonging to the company, to the town of Ergasteria, near Cape Colonna, built by themselves to be their workshop and port ; there these scoriae are re-smelted, and yield annually nearly 10,000 tons of lead, and a large quantity of silver. There are 3000 operatives engaged in this work at Lrgnsteria. The value of the export in 1875 was 150,513.
But the most conspicuous success of Greece has been in her maritime commerce, for which the situation and configuration of the country afford unusual facilities. In 1821 Greece had only 440 vessels, with a total tonnage of 61,450 tons, whereas in 1875 she had 5440 vessels, 27 of them steamers, with a tonnage in all of 262,032 tons, and employing 26,760 men. In 1830 there was hardly a harbour in all Greece worth the name, the Piraeus being then barely accessible to fishing boats ; there are now 65 good ports. It had only one lighthouse in 1847 ; it has now 46, but more are still urgently needed.
The straits of Euripushave been cleared, deepened, and widened, and an iron bridge thrown across. There are five chambers of commerce. The chief ports are Hermopolis (Syra), Hydra, Spezzia, Corfu, Zante, Pirseus, Patras, Mesolonghi, Nauplia, Sautorin, Naxos, Corinth.
The commerce of Greece is usually divided into general and
