gardens, an antiquarian museum, and a hospital among its auxiliary establishments. A fine deaf and dumb institution, founded by Henri Daniel Guyot, a gymnasium, a normal college, a school of navigation, a school of design, and a musical school are among the secondary educational establishments. A society pro excolendo jure patris has been in existence since 1761 ; an academy of fine arts was formed in 1830 by the incorporation of two older societies of similar character; and the same year saw the formal establishment of the society for the advancement of natural science, which may be traced back to the association started by Van Swinderen in 1801. Groningen maintains a considerable trade, and engages in a variety of industries. It manufactures salt, beer, vinegar, soap, earthenware, and ropes, weaves cotton and woollen stuffs, spins flax, makes brushes, furniture, mirrors, organs, and pianos, and has numerous goldsmiths and silversmiths. In 1840 the town and the suburbs comprised a population of 31,782. In 1870 the number of people in the commune, including 1248 on shipboard, was 37,894, and four years later it had increased to 39,284.
Mention is made of the Villa Cruoninga in a deed of gift from Henry III. to the church of Utrecht in 1040. In 1110 the town was surrounded with walls, but the bishop of Utrecht caused them to be dismantled in 1112, and it was not till 1255 that the defences began to be restored. The compass of the town, which at this time was about 13,000 feet, received considerable extension in 1469, when the walls -were strengthened with six massive towers, and a ditch was dug. A further increase of defensive capabilities was effected in the course of the Gueldres war of 1514-36, and again under William Louis of Nassau between 1608 and 1624. The early history of Groningen consists mainly of struggles with the bishops of Utrecht. In the course of the 13th century there is evidence that the commercial activity of its population was finding outlet in various directions, and in the 14th it attained to no small political influence as the chief city of Friesland. Maximilian I. assigned Groniugen to Albert of Saxony, but the citizens preferred to accept the protection of the bishop of Utrecht ; and when Albert s son George attempted in 1505 to seize the town, they recognized the lordship of Edzart of East Frisia. On George s renewal of hos tilities they transferred their allegiance to Duke Charles of Guelder- land, and his position was sanctioned in 1515 by the emperor Charles V. In the course of the great wars of the 16th century the city had an eventful history, passing from hand to hand, and suffering all the miseries of siege and military occupation ; but at length., in 1594, it was finally secured for the United Netherlands by Prince Maurice of Nassau. The dissensions between the citizens proper and the inhabitants of the " Ommelanden" continued, how ever, in spite of the decree of the states in 1597, which was intended to set them at rest. In 1672 the town was besieged by the bishop of Minister, but it was successfully defended, and in 1698 its forti fications were improved under Coehoru s direction. The French republicans planted their tree of liberty in the Great Market on February 14, 1795, and they continued in authority till 16th November 1814. The fortifications of the city were doomed to destruction by the law of 18th April 1874. Among the numerous man of mark who have been natives of Groningen it is enough to mention J. D. Bernoulli the mathematician, Surenhusius and Schultens the Orientalists, and Hemsterhuis the philologist.
See Oiullicden en Gestichten van Groningen uyt het Latijn vertaald, door H. V. R. , Leyden, 1724; Kronyk van Groningcn cnde Omme landen tot op dezcn Jaare 1743, Groningen, 1743; E. J. D. Lorgion, Ges hiedkundige Beschrijviny der Stad Groningen, Groningen, 1852-57; Album der Stad Groningen, Groningen, 1860; Wynne, Handel en Ontwikkcling van Stad en Provincie Groningen, Groningen, 1865 ; Theodor Wenzelberker, in Ersch andGruber s Encyclopddie, sub voce, 1872 ; Witkamp, Aardrijkskunduj Woordcnbock, 1877.
GRONOVIUS, or GRONOV, Jakob (1645-1716), one
of the very great scholars of the 17th century, was born
20th October 1645 at Deventer, where his father, J. F.
Gnoxpvius (q.v. was at that time professor of rhetoric
and history. On the completion of his studies at Leyden,
where he had early distinguished himself by his powers of
intellectual acquisition, he in 1698 visited England, where
he became acquainted with Pocock, Pearson, and Mery
Casaubon, and where he devoted several months to the
collation of rare manuscripts at Oxford and Cambridge.
His edition of Polybius, published at Leyden in 1670, in
addition to his own and variorum notes, contained those
which Casaubon on his deathbed had bequeathed to him.
Declining an invitation to a chair at Deventer, he in 1671
visited France, and was brought into intimate relations with
D Herbelot, Thevenot, and other distinguished scholars ;
and after another brief interval at Leyden he in 1672
travelled in Spain, whence he passed into Italy, There he
accepted from the grand duke of Tuscany a chair at the
university of Pisa, which, however, he resigned at the end
of two years. Having returned to Deventer by way of
Germany, he had settled down with the purpose of working
uninterruptedly at an edition of Livy, when in 1679 he
was invited by the curators of the university of Leyden to
occupy a professorial chair. Here, untempted by several
pressing invitations to various foreign universities, he spent
the remaining years of his life, in which the calmness which
normally characterizes even the most ardent scholarly
research was unfortunately too often broken by literary
quarrels conducted on his part with excessive violence and
scurrility. He died 21st October 1716.
The most celebrated as well as the most important of the works of J. Gronovius is the Thesaurus Antiquitatum Grcccarum (Leyden, 1608-1702, in 13 vols. fol., and Venice 1732-1737, also in 13 vols. fol.) For this invaluable collection he adopted the plan traced out by Grajvius in the Thesaurus Antiquitatum Romanarum. Gronovius published new editions of several authors commented on by his father, such as Seneca, Phsedrus, and others ; and he also edited Macrobius, Polybius, Tacitus, Cicero, Ammianus Marcullinus, Quintus Curtius, Suetonius, Arrian, Minutius Felix, Herodotus, Cebes, and some ancient geographers ; the poem of Manetho, on the stars ; the Uactylotheca of Gorlams ; the Lexicon of Harpocration, &c. The other productions of Gronovius consist of theses, discourses, and diatribes, of which a list will be found in the Dictionnaire of Chauffepie.
GRONOVIUS, or GRONOV, Johann Friedrich (1613-1671), scholar and critic, was born at Hamburg,
20th September 1613. He went through his early studies
with great distinction at Bremen, and afterwards attended
the universities of Leipsic, Jena, and Altorf, whence Le
extended his travels into France and Italy. In 1643 he
was appointed professor of rhetoric and history at Deventer,
and in 1658 he succeeded Daniel Heinsius in the Greek
chair at Leyden, where he died on the 28th of December
1671.
Besides editing, with notes, Statins, Plautus, Livy, Pliny, Taci tus, Aulus Gellius, and Seneca s tragedies, he was the author of numerous works which have been exhaustively catalogued by Chauffepie and others. They include De Scstcrtiis, sire subsecivorum Pccunios vetcris Grccccc ct Romance Libri /F"(1643), and notes upon Seneca, Phsedrus, &c., which were subsequently utilized by his son Jacobus Gronovius in his editions of those authors.
GROOT, Gerhard (1340-1384), in Latin Gerardus Magnus, founder of the society of " Brethren of the Common Life," was born in October, 1340, at Deventer, where his father held a good civic position. Other forms of the family name are Groote, Groet, and Groete. At the close of his school education, received partly at Deventer and partly at Aix-la-Chapelle and Cologne, Gerhard ("Gerrit" or " Geert") in his fifteenth year entered the university of Paris, where lie became firmly attached to the nominalism then in vogue, and where he made distinguished progress in almost all the branches of learning then cultivated, canon law, medicine, astrology, and even magic being added to the theology and philosophy of the schoolmen. Shortly after his graduation in 1358, he returned to his father s house at Deventer, where, however, his stay was comparatively brief. We next hear of him as learning and teaching in Cologne ; according to one account he studied also at Prague; and in 1366 he visited, on public business it is presumed, the papal court at Avignon. About this time he was appointed to a couple of canonries at Utrecht and Aix-la-Chapelle respectively, and the life of the brilliant young scholar was rapidly becoming luxurious, secular, and selfish, when a great spiritual change passed over him which
