HANOVER (German, Hannover), formerly an independent kingdom, but since 1860 a province of Prussia, lies between 51 18 and 53 52 N. lat. and 6 43 and 11 45 E. long., and is bounded on the N". by the North Sea, N.E. by Holstein, Hamburg, and Mecklenburg, E. and S.E. by Prussian Saxony and the duchy of Brunswick, S.W. by Hesse-Cassel and Westphalia, and W. by Holland. These boundaries include the grand-duchy of Oldenburg, which stretches southward from the North Sea nearly to the southern boundary of Hanover. A small portion of the province in the south is separated from Hanover proper by the interposition of a part of Brunswick. The area of the province extends to 14,548 English square miles.
Physical Features.—The greater part of Hanover is embraced in that extensive plain which, commencing on the shores of the North Sea, terminates on the frontiers of Russia. The most fruitful districts are on the banks of the Elbe and near the North Sea, where, as in Holland, rich meadows are preserved from being immersed in water by broad dykes and deep ditches, constructed and kept in repair at great expense. It is only the southern portion that is mountainous ; the district of Klausthal, containing the Harz, is wholly so, as well as some parts near Got- tingen, and in the district of Hildesheim. The Harz mountains are not a part of any chain, but rise from a plain in an isolated group, the highest points of which are nearly in the centre (see Harz). They are covered with exten sive forests. On their lower slopes the trees are of the deciduous kinds, but pines alone are found on the summits.
The whob of Hanover dips towards the north, and the rivers consequently flow in that direction. The Elbe, which forms the boundary on the N.E., receives the fol lowing tributaries : the Ohre, wiiich rises in the district of Liineburg ; the Aland and the Jetze, which come out of the province of Saxony, and are navigable in their lower course ; the Ilmenau, which becomes navigable at Liine burg ; the Este, navigable to Buxtehude; the Llihe, navigable to Hornburg ; the Schwinge, by which vessels reach Stade ; the Oste, navigable to Kirchosters ; and the Medem, which runs through the Hadeln-land, and admits large vessels up to Otterndorf. The Weser enters Hanover at Miinden, being there formed by the junction of the Fulda and the Werra. It is navigable for barges from the spot at which its name commences ; and it receives the Hamel, the Aller, the Oertze, the Leine, the Bohme, the Eyther, the Wiimme, which in the lower part of its course takes the name of Lesum, the Geeste, and the Hunte, all of them purely Hanoverian rivers. The Ems rises in the province of Westphalia, and after entering Hanover receives the waters of the Aa, the Haase, the Else, and the Leda ; it falls into the Dollart near Emden, which is the principal seaport in the kingdom. It is navigable for flat-bottomed vessels from Rheina downwards, and for sea-going ships from Halte and Weener. The Vecht, a river of short course, rises in the province of Westphalia, and falls into the Zuyder Zee. A navigable canal from the Vecht to Miinster connects that city with the Zuyder Zee. Navigable canals connect the various river systems.
The principal lakes are the Steinhuder Meer, about 4 miles long and 2 broad, and 20 fathoms deep, on the borders of Schaumburg-Lippe ; the Diimmersee on the borders of Oldenburg, about 12 miles in circuit; the lake of Bederkesa, and some others in the moorlands of the north ; the Seeburger See near Duderstadt ; and the Oderteich, in the Harz, 2100 feet above the level of the sea.
Climate.—The climate in the low-lying districts near the coast is moist and foggy, in the plains mild, on the Harz mountains severe and variable. In spring the prevailing winds blow from the N.E. and E., in summer from the S.W. The mean annual temperature is about 46 Fahr. ; in the town of Hanover it is- higher. The average annual rainfall is about 23 - 5 inches; but this varies greatly in different districts. In the west the Hohenrauch, a thick fog arising from the burning of the moors, is a plague of frequent occurrence.
Agriculture.—Though agriculture constitutes the most important branch of industry in the province, it is still in a very backward state. The greater part of the soil is of inferior quality, and much that is susceptible of cultivation is still lying waste. Of the entire area of the country 28 "2 per cent, is arable, 16 in meadow or pasture land, 13 percent, in forests, 37 2 per cent, in uncultivated moors, heaths, &c. ; from 17 to 18 per cent, is in possession of the state. The best agriculture is to be found in the distiicts of Hildesheim, Calenberg, Gottingen, and Grubenluigen, on the banks of the Weser and Elbe, and in East Friesland. Of the whole urea under cultivation in 1878 there was under wheat 1 9 per cent. ; iye, 10 9 ; barley, 9 ; oats, 5 7 ; buckwheat, 1 4 ; pease, 4 ; potatoes, 2 8 ; and meadow, 10 4 percent. The extent of tillage was 3,295, 752 acres of a total area of 9,464,446 acres. The total yield for the season 1878 was wheat, 2,298,543 cwt. ; rye, 10,843*726 cwt. ; barley, 1,350,417 cwt.; oats, 7,054,389 cwt.; buckwheat, 1,150,515 cwt.; pease, 348,934 cwt.; potatoes, 17,828,490 cwt; hay, 34,238,480 cwt. Eye is generally grown for bread. Flax, for which much of the soil is admirably adapted, is extensively cultivated, and forms an important article of export, chiefly, however, in the form of yarn. Hemp, turnips, and hops are also among the exports. There were in 1877 805 acres planted with tobacco, the produce of which was 12,207 cwt., valued at 15,150. Of beet there were 27,700 acres, yielding 5,376,480 cwt. of beet-root, from which was manufactured in 27 sugar-mills with 211 engines of 2433 horse-power 581,707 cwt. of raw sugar. Apples, pears, plums, and cherries are the principal kinds of fruit grown, lied bilberries (Vaccinium Vitis idcca) from the Harz and black bilberries ( V. Myrtillus) from the Liineburg Heath form an important article of export.
Live Stock.—By the returns of 1873 there were in Hanover 191,006 horses, 132 mules, 40-1. asses, 894,158 head of horned cattle, 1,856,962 sheep (including 511,892 heidschnucken, a very coarse breed), 510,550 pigs, 17- > ,902 goats, and 217,045 beehives. Bees are principally kept, on the Liineburg Heath. The number of sheep was larger before 1867, but the number of horned cattle has increased. Horses are reared in the marshes of Aurich and Stade, in Hildesheim and Hanover ; the cattle of Aurich (East Friesland) are famous for their size and quality. The best sheep belong to the country lying between the capital and the Harz. Large flocks of geese are kept in the moist lowlands ; their flesh is salted for domestic consumption during the winter, and their feathers are prepared for sale.
Mining.—Minerals occur in great variety and abundance. The Harz mountains are rich in silver, lead, iron, and copper ; co.al is found around Osnabriick, on the Deister, at Osterwald, &c., lignite in various places ; salt-springs of great richness exist at Egestorfshall and Neuhall near Hanover, and at Liineburg ; and petroleum may be obtained south of Celle. In the cold regions of the northern lowlands, peat occurs in beds of immense thickness. The mining returns for the year 1878 give the following quantities and values : coal, 301,728 tons (118,765) ; lignite, 126,714 tons (33,724); asphalt, 26,000 tons (28,000); iron ores, 170,969 tons (16,000); zinc, 5141 tons (16,944) ; lead ore, 32,866 tons (188,785); copper ore, 16,793 tons (45,286) ; silver ore, 35 cwt. (1420); manganese ore, 3070 cwt. (719); salt from springs, 73,007 tons (91,493).
Manufactures.—Works for the manufacture of iron, copper, brass, wire, silver, lead, vitriol, and sulphur are carried on to a large extent. About 40,000 persons are employed in these works and in the mines, the yearly revenue from which amounts to 1,200,000. The production of 1878 consisted of iron, 1,562,231 tons; lead, 8774 tons ; copper, 2556 cwt.; silver, 53,932 lb ; gold, 171 R> ; sulphuric acid, 573 tons ; blue vitriol, 788 tons. The iron works are very important : smelting is carried on in the Harz and near Osnabriick ; there are extensive foundries and machine factories at Hanover, Linden, Osnabriick, Hameln, Geestemiinde, Harburg, Osterode, &c., and manufactories of arms at Herzberg, and of cutlery in the towns of the Harz and in the Sollinger Forest. The textile industries are prosecuted chiefly in the towns. Linen yarn and cloth are largely manufactured, especially in the south about Osnabriick and Hildesheim, and bleaching is engaged in extensively ; woollen cloths are made to a considerable extent in the south about Einbeck, Gottingen, and Hameln ; cotton- spinning and weaving have their principal seats at Hanover and Lin den. Glass houses, paper-mills, potteries, tile works, and tobacco- pipe works are numerous. Wax is bleached to a considerable extent, andthere are numerous tobacco factories, tanneries, breweries, vinegar works, and brandy distilleries. Shipbuilding is an important in-
